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- Lead (17) (entfernen)
Organisationseinheit der BAM
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Geothermal brines often contain high amounts of lead and copper ions that can precipitate as native Cu and Pb as consequence of galvanic corrosion when brines react with carbon steel materials. This contribution evaluates which materials could overcome the problem of galvanic corrosion at geothermal environment.
The behavior of these materials in water containing high chloride concentration (> 100 g/L NaCl) as well as various amounts of dissolved bCl2 and/or CuCl2 was characterized by electrochemical and exposure measurements.
Both methods reveal carbon steel suffers corrosion susceptibility, accompanied by Cu◦ and/or Pb◦ precipitation on the surface. Electrochemical measurements on stainless steels result in significant difference in corrosion and repassivation potentials (Ecorr = -189 mV, Erep = 70 mV), indicating a good corrosion resistance.
Situationsbeschreibung bezüglich der Einhaltung der Schwermetallverbote der Batterieverordnung zu
erhalten. Nach geltenden Vorschriften dürfen die Gehalte folgende Grenzwerte nicht überschreiten:
5 ppm Quecksilber (Hg; Knopfzellen: 20000 ppm Hg), 250 ppm Cadmium (Cd) und 4000 ppm Blei
(Pb).
Dazu wurden Mignon-Zellen (Alkali-Mangan, Zink-Kohle), Monozellen (Alkali-Mangan, Zink-Kohle),
Knopfzellen verschiedener chemischer Systeme (Alkali-Mangan, Zink-Luft, Lithium, Silberoxid),
eingebaute Batterien (herausnehmbar und fest eingebaut) von unterschiedlichen Herstellern aus
unterschiedlichen Orten sowie Bezugsquellen auf ihren Gehalt an Cadmium, Blei und Quecksilber
untersucht. Von jedem Batterietyp wurden zwei Exemplare, insgesamt 310 Proben analysiert. Anhand
eines Probenahmeplans wurden Batterien in vier Regionen Deutschlands im Einzelhandel, bei
Straßenhändlern sowie auf Flohmärkten und im Versandhandel käuflich erworben.
Für Rundzellen (Alkali-Mangan, Zink-Kohle) sowie Knopfzellen (Zink-Luft, Lithium, Silberoxid, Alkali-
Mangan) wurden unterschiedliche Analysenstrategien entwickelt. So wurden die Knopfzellen nach
Möglichkeit komplett gelöst und analysiert, bei den Rundzellen kam nur eine mechanische Zerlegung
mit anschließender Analyse von Teilproben in Frage. Die Knopfzellen sowie die Teilproben der
Rundzellen wurden mit Hilfe eines Säureaufschlusses mit Mikrowelle gelöst, zur Bestimmung der
Elemente wurden abhängig vom Gehalt ICP-MS, ICP OES sowie ein automatischer
Quecksilberanalysator verwendet, einzelne unlösliche Graphitteile aus Zink-Kohle Batterien wurden
mit direkter Feststoff-ICP OES analysiert.
Als Ergebnis der Studie wurde erhalten, dass nur in zwei von 155 untersuchten Batterietypen der
Gehalt an Quecksilber leicht oberhalb des Grenzwertes von 2 % lag, für Blei und Cadmium wurden
keine Grenzwertüberschreitungen festgestellt. Bei den beiden Batterien, bei denen eine
Grenzwertüberschreitung vorlag, handelte es sich um Zink-Luft-Knopfzellen, die vom Hersteller als Hgfrei
deklariert waren. Unterschiede nach Bezugsort von Batterien desselben Typs und Herstellers bzw.
nach verschiedenen Größen von Batterien desselben chemischen Systems eines Herstellers konnten
nicht gefunden werden.
The aim of the project was to describe the situation concerning the compliance with the existing
limits for heavy metal content in commercially available batteries in Germany on the basis of a
representative sample. The allowed limits which not have to be exceeded are: 5 ppm of mercury (Hg;
button cells: 20000 ppm Hg), 250 ppm of cadmium (Cd) and 4000 ppm of lead (Pb).
Several batteries of different size such as AA batteries (alkaline/manganese, zinc/carbon), D
batteries (alkaline/manganese, zinc/carbon) and button cells of different chemical systems (zinc-air;
lithium; alkaline/manganese, silver oxide) were analysed for cadmium, lead and mercury. The test
batteries came from different producers and were bought on different places in Germany. From each
battery type two specimen were investigated, in total 294 samples. Following a sampling plan the
batteries were purchased in four regions in Germany by retail, by mail order or on flew markets.
Different strategies for the analysis of AA and D batteries (alkaline/manganese, zinc/carbon) and
for button cells (alkaline/manganese, zinc-air, lithium, silver oxide) were developed. Button cells were
dissolved completely whenever possible. From the bigger types only subspecimens were analysed
after mechanical destruction. Button cells and the subspecimens of the bigger batteries were
decomposed with acid in a microwave oven. For the analysis of the heavy metals ICP-MS, ICP OES
and an automatic mercury analyser were used depending on the content of the interesting element.
Some graphite parts from zinc/carbon batteries were analysed using solid sampling ICP OES.
The result of the study was that only two of 147 batteries had Hg-contents slightly higher than the
limit of 2 %. Pb- and Cd-contents were below the limits for all batteries investigated. The two
batteries with higher Hg-contents were both zinc-air button cells declared by the manufacturer to be
mercury-free. Differences between batteries of the same kind and producer purchased at different
places or between batteries of different size but same producer and same chemical system could not
be detected.
The objective of this work was to test the compliance of commercially available batteries with the German Battery Ordinance, a project of the German government that was initiated by the Federal Environment Agency. Different types of commercially available dry cells were analysed for their cadmium, lead and mercury contents. The dry cells underwent mechanical pre-treatment, separation of the different components and microwave-assisted digestion before determination of the heavy metals. Mercury is sometimes added to prevent the generation of gaseous hydrogen from the electrochemical process. Lead could be present since it is sometimes used as an alloying element of zinc. Cadmium has no technical importance and is an undesirable impurity. None of the batteries contained higher heavy metal mass fractions than the permissible limits.
The objective of this work was to provide updated information on the development of the potential impact of heavy metal containing batteries on municipal waste and battery recycling processes following transposition of the new EU Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC. A representative sample of 146 different types of commercially available dry and button cells as well as lithium-ion accumulators for mobile phones were analysed for their mercury (Hg)-, cadmium (Cd)- and lead (Pb)-contents. The methods used for preparing the cells and analysing the heavy metals Hg, Cd, and Pb were either developed during a former study or newly developed. Several batteries contained higher mass fractions of mercury or cadmium than the EU limits. Only half of the batteries with mercury and/or lead fractions above the marking thresholds were labelled. Alkaline–manganese mono-cells and Li-ion accumulators, on average, contained the lowest heavy metal concentrations, while zinc–carbon batteries, on average, contained the highest levels.
Following the reviews of atomic-weight determinations and other cognate data in 2015, 2017, 2019 and 2021, the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights (CIAAW) reports changes of standard atomic weights. The symbol Ar(E) was selected for standard atomic weight of an element to distinguish it from the atomic weight of an element E in a specific substance P, designated Ar(E, P). The CIAAW has changed the values of the standard atomic weights of five elements based on recent determinations of terrestrial isotopic abundances:
Ar (argon): from 39.948 ± 0.001 to [39.792, 39.963]
Hf (hafnium): from 178.49 ± 0.02 to 178.486 ± 0.006
Ir (iridium): from 192.217 ± 0.003 to 192.217 ± 0.002
Pb (lead): from 207.2 ± 0.1 to [206.14, 207.94]
Yb (ytterbium): from 173.054 ± 0.005 to 173.045 ± 0.010
The standard atomic weight of argon and lead have changed to an interval to reflect that the natural variation in isotopic composition exceeds the measurement uncertainty of Ar(Ar) and Ar(Pb) in a specific substance. The standard atomic weights and/or the uncertainties of fourteen elements have been changed based on the Atomic Mass Evaluations 2016 and 2020 accomplished under the auspices of the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP). Ar of Ho, Tb, Tm and Y were changed in 2017 and again updated in 2021:
Al (aluminium), 2017: from 26.981 5385 ± 0.000 0007 to 26.981 5384 ± 0.000 0003
Au (gold), 2017: from 196.966 569 ± 0.000 005 to 196.966 570 ± 0.000 004
Co (cobalt), 2017: from 58.933 194 ± 0.000 004 to 58.933 194 ± 0.000 003
F (fluorine), 2021: from 18.998 403 163 ± 0.000 000 006 to 18.998 403 162 ± 0.000 000 005
(Ho (holmium), 2017: from 164.930 33 ± 0.000 02 to 164.930 328 ± 0.000 007)
Ho (holmium), 2021: from 164.930 328 ± 0.000 007 to 164.930 329 ± 0.000 005
Mn (manganese), 2017: from 54.938 044 ± 0.000 003 to 54.938 043 ± 0.000 002
Nb (niobium), 2017: from 92.906 37 ± 0.000 02 to 92.906 37 ± 0.000 01
Pa (protactinium), 2017: from 231.035 88 ± 0.000 02 to 231.035 88 ± 0.000 01
Pr (praseodymium), 2017: from 140.907 66 ± 0.000 02 to 140.907 66 ± 0.000 01
Rh (rhodium), 2017: from 102.905 50 ± 0.000 02 to 102.905 49 ± 0.000 02
Sc (scandium), 2021: from 44.955 908 ± 0.000 005 to 44.955 907 ± 0.000 004
(Tb (terbium), 2017: from 158.925 35 ± 0.000 02 to 158.925 354 ± 0.000 008)
Tb (terbium), 2021: from 158.925 354 ± 0.000 008 to 158.925 354 ± 0.000 007
(Tm (thulium), 2017: from 168.934 22 ± 0.000 02 to 168.934 218 ± 0.000 006)
Tm (thulium), 2021: from 168.934 218 ± 0.000 006 to 168.934 219 ± 0.000 005
(Y (yttrium), 2017: from 88.905 84 ± 0.000 02 to 88.905 84 ± 0.000 01)
Y (yttrium), 2021: from 88.905 84 ± 0.000 01 to 88.905 838 ± 0.000 002
Small-arm shooting ranges often receive a significant input of lead (Pb), copper (Cu) and antimony (Sb) from ammunition. The goal of the present study was to investigate the mobility, distribution and speciation of Pb and Sb pollution under field conditions in both untreated and sorbent-amended shooting range soil. Elevated Sb (19–349 μg L⁻¹) and Pb (7–1495 μg Pb L⁻¹) concentrations in the porewater of untreated soil over the four-year test period indicated a long-term Sb and Pb source to the adjacent environment in the absence of remedial measures. Mixing ferric oxyhydroxide powder (CFH-12) (2%) together with limestone (1%) into the soil resulted in an average decrease of Sb and Pb porewater concentrations of 66% and 97%, respectively. A similar reduction was achieved by adding 2% zerovalent iron (Fe°) to the soil. The remediation effect was stable over the four-year experimental period indicating no remobilization. Water- and 1 M NH₄NO₃-extractable levels of Sb and Pb in field soil samples indicated significant immobilization by both treatments (89–90% for Sb and 89–99% for Pb). Results from sequential extraction analysis indicate fixation of Sb and Pb in less accessible fractions like amorphous iron oxides or even more crystalline and residual mineral phases, respectively. This work shows that amendment with Fe-based sorbents can be an effective method to reduce the mobility of metals both in cationic and anionic form in polluted shooting range soil.