TY - THES A1 - Schempp, Philipp T1 - Grain refinement in aluminium GTA welds N2 - Grain refinement is an important opportunity to improve mechanical properties of fusion welds and the weldability (cracking sensitivity) of the base metal. In this thesis, grain refinement was achieved for aluminium welds by additions of a grain refiner. For this purpose, inserts consisting of aluminium base metal and small additions of commercial Al Ti5B1 grain refiner were cast, deposited in base metal plates, and fused in a gas tungsten arc (GTA) welding process. As a result, higher grain refiner additions increased the weld’s titanium and boron content resulting in a significant decrease in the weld metal mean grain size up to 86%. This grain size reduction led to a transition from predominantly columnar to equiaxed grain shape (columnar to equiaxed transition CET). The grain refinement was thereby found to be strongly dependent upon the base metal chemical composition. Accordingly, the grain refining efficiency was the highest in commercial pure Al (Alloy 1050A, Al 99.5), followed by Alloy 6082 (Al Si1MgMn) and Alloy 5083 (Al Mg4.5Mn0.7). In this regard, the parameters P and Q were applied to investigate the influence of alloying elements on the supply of constitutional undercooling during solidification and on final grain size. Also, WDS (wavelength dispersive x-ray spectroscopy) and TEM (transmission electron microscopy) analysis found an increasing number of particles rich in Ti and B. These substrates are probably TiB2 particles coated by Al3Ti likely nucleating Al grains during solidification. The variation in torch speed showed that increasing torch speeds support the CET effect leading to many small and equiaxed grains at high torch speed. To give explanations for this observation, the thermal conditions, that are controlled by welding parameters such as torch speed, were determined with temperature measurements via thermocouples. These measurements revealed that solidification parameters like solidification growth rate, cooling rate, (local) thermal gradient and solidification time vary significantly along the solidification front (from weld centreline to weld fusion line). In a further step, the solidification parameters were related to the corresponding grain size and shape. On the basis of this comparison, an analytical approach was used to model the CET. This allowed the prediction of critical values for both solidification growth rate and thermal gradient, at which the CET occurs in aluminium weld metal. The influence of grain refinement on the weld mechanical properties was investigated in tensile tests. Accordingly, the ductility of Alloy 5083 welds was increased through grain refinement whereas no improvement in weld metal strength was observed. Furthermore, tear tests with notched specimens revealed for Alloy 1050A that the resistance against initiation and propagation of cracks in the weld metal can be enhanced through grain refinement. In addition, when welding Alloy 6082, weld metal grain refinement prevented the formation of centreline solidification cracking that was present only in welds with unrefined grain structure. On the basis of the above experiments, the Ti/B contents needed in commercial filler wires or rods to allow optimum weld metal grain refinement were estimated. Accordingly, this work gives specific recommendations to filler material producers through a simple calculation that considers the influence of base alloy and welding process. The results show that the Ti/B contents defined by the corresponding standards for filler alloys are too low to allow weld metal grain refinement. T3 - BAM Dissertationsreihe - 111 KW - Aluminium KW - Kornfeinung KW - WIG-Schweißen PY - 2013 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-477 SN - 978-3-9815944-4-7 SN - 1613-4249 VL - 111 SP - 1 EP - 121 PB - Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) CY - Berlin AN - OPUS4-47 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - THES A1 - Neumann, Patrick P. T1 - Gas Source Localization and Gas Distribution Mapping with a Micro-Drone N2 - Die Zielsetzung der Dissertation ist die Entwicklung und Validierung einer VTOL-fähigen (Vertical Take Off and Landing) Mikrodrohne zur Messung von Gaskonzentrationen, zur Lokalisierung von Gasemissionsquellen und zur Erstellung von Gasverteilungskarten. Neben der Adaption einer Mikrodrohne zur Gaskonzentrationsmessung wird ein neuartiges Verfahren zur Bestimmung des Windvektors in Echtzeit realisiert. Die Basis für die Windvektorberechnung bildet die Onboard- Sensorik zur Flugregelung der Mikrodrohne. Weiterhin wird eine neuartige Software zur autonomen Steuerung der Mikrodrohne vorgestellt, mit der eine ausführliche Validierung der im Rahmen dieser Dissertation entwickelten Algorithmen in Simulationen und Realexperimenten durchgeführt wird. Zwei biologisch inspirierte Algorithmen zur Lokalisierung von Gasquellen wurden für den Einsatz mit der Mikrodrohne angepasst – die Entwicklung eines dritten Algorithmus wird ebenfalls beschrieben. Dieser Algorithmus extrahiert aus zwei räumlich getrennten Messpunkten die notwendigen Informationen (Konzentrationsgradient und mittlere Windrichtungen) um einer Gasfahne bis hin zur Emissionsquelle zu folgen. Die Leistungsfähigkeit der Algorithmen wurde in Simulationen und Realexperimenten bestimmt, wobei als Vergleichskriterium dabei die Abweichung der von der Mikrodrohne erstellten Trajektorie im Vergleich zur Ideallinie und die Erfolgsquote beim Lokalisieren der Gasquelle herangezogen wurden. Im Anschluss wird eine neue Methode zur Quelllokalisierung beruhend auf einem Partikelfilter präsentiert. Dabei steht jedes Partikel für eine gewichtete Hypothese der Quellposition. Im ersten Schritt rekonstruiert der Partikelfilter anhand der Messdaten der Mikrodrohne den Weg, den das Gas von der Quelle bis zur Messposition genommen haben konnte, und aktualisiert auf Basis dieser Berechnung die Gewichtung der Partikel. Unsicherheiten bezüglich der gemessenen Windrichtung werden dabei in Form eines sich öffnenden Wind-Kegels in Flächenprojektion VII (2D) berücksichtigt. Ausgehend von mehreren Messpositionen kann schließlich eine gute Schatzung der Quellposition erfolgen, deren Abweichung dabei ein Kriterium der Leistungsfähigkeit des Algorithmus darstellt. Simulationen und Realexperimente dienen hierbei zur Validierung des Verfahrens. Auch auf den Aspekt der Umweltbeobachtung von Gasverteilungen mit einer Mikrodrohne wird eingegangen. Hierzu werden zwei Messstrategien zur Modellierung der Gasverteilung verglichen. Eine Strategie sieht die Messung entlang vordefinierter Sweeping-Trajektorien vor, wohingegen ein weiterer Ansatz adaptiv neue Messpositionen auf Basis eines kontinuierlich aktualisierten Gasverteilungsmodells vorschlägt. Diese adaptive Messstrategie verwendet künstliche Potentialfelder um die Mikrodrohne in Regionen mit hoher Gaskonzentration oder hoher Varianz der Gaskonzentration zu steuern, während generell eine möglichst umfassende Abdeckung der überwachungsfläche angestrebt wird. Ziel ist die Minimierung der Zeit, die notwendig ist, um ein reprasentatives Gasverteilungsmodell zu erhalten. Es wird gezeigt, dass Gasverteilungsmodelle dazu beitragen können Positionen von Gasquellen zu bestimmen. Die Strategien wurden erfolgreich in einer Vielzahl von Realexperimenten in verschiedenen Szenarien der Gasfreisetzung erprobt und unter Verwendung unterschiedlicher Gassensortechnologien auf Reproduzierbarkeit der Experimente getestet. Die adaptive Messstrategie wurde darüber hinaus erfolgreich in Simulationen validiert. Die Resultate dieser Dissertation spiegeln die Anwendbarkeit gassensitiver Mikrodrohnen unter verschiedenen Bedingungen der Gasfreisetzung wider. Effektive Gegenmaßnahmen bei Gefahrenszenarien nach Chemie- oder Gefahrgutunfällen können mit Hilfe ortsaufgeloster Gaskonzentrations- und Winddaten eingeleitet werden. Die Überwachung von geochemisch aktiven Regionen, Mulldeponien, CO2-Speicherungsanlagen und die Lokalisierung von Leckagen bilden weitere Anwendungsfelder. N2 - The objective of this Ph.D. thesis is the development and validation of a VTOL-based (Vertical Take Off and Landing) micro-drone for the measurement of gas concentrations, to locate gas emission sources, and to build gas distribution maps. Gas distribution mapping and localization of a static gas source are complex tasks due to the turbulent nature of gas transport under natural conditions [1] and becomes even more challenging when airborne. This is especially so, when using a VTOL-based micro-drone that induces disturbances through its rotors, which heavily affects gas distribution. Besides the adaptation of a micro-drone for gas concentration measurements, a novel method for the determination of the wind vector in real-time is presented. The on-board sensors for the flight control of the micro-drone provide a basis for the wind vector calculation. Furthermore, robot operating software for controlling the micro-drone autonomously is developed and used to validate the algorithms developed within this Ph.D. thesis in simulations and real-world experiments. Three biologically inspired algorithms for locating gas sources are adapted and developed for use with the micro-drone: the surge-cast algorithm (a variant of the silkworm moth algorithm) [2], the zigzag / dung beetle algorithm [3], and a newly developed algorithm called “pseudo gradient algorithm”. The latter extracts from two spatially separated measuring positions the information necessary (concentration gradient and mean wind direction) to follow a gas plume to its emission source. The performance of the algorithms is evaluated in simulations and real-world experiments. The distance overhead and the gas source localization success rate are used as main performance criteria for comparing the algorithms. Next, a new method for gas source localization (GSL) based on a particle filter (PF) is presented. Each particle represents a weighted hypothesis of the gas source position. As a first step, the PF-based GSL algorithm uses gas and wind measurements to reason about the trajectory of a gas patch since it was released by the gas source until it reaches the measurement position of the micro-drone. Because of the chaotic nature of wind, an uncertainty about the wind direction has to be considered in the reconstruction process, which extends this trajectory to a patch path envelope (PPE). In general, the PPE describes the envelope of an area which the gas patch has passed with high probability. Then, the weights of the particles are updated based on the PPE. Given a uniform wind field over the search space and a single gas source, the reconstruction of multiple trajectories at different measurement locations using sufficient gas and wind measurements can lead to an accurate estimate of the gas source location, whose distance to the true source location is used as the main performance criterion. Simulations and real-world experiments are used to validate the proposed method. The aspect of environmental monitoring with a micro-drone is also discussed. Two different sampling approaches are suggested in order to address this problem. One method is the use of a predefined sweeping trajectory to explore the target area with the micro-drone in real-world gas distribution mapping experiments. As an alternative sampling approach an adaptive strategy is presented, which suggests next sampling points based on an artificial potential field to direct the micro-drone towards areas of high predictive mean and high predictive variance, while maximizing the coverage area. The purpose of the sensor planning component is to reduce the time that is necessary to converge to the final gas distribution model or to reliably identify important parameters of the distribution such as areas of high concentration. It is demonstrated that gas distribution models can provide an accurate estimate of the location of stationary gas sources. These strategies have been successfully tested in a variety of real-world experiments in different scenarios of gas release using different gas sensors to verify the reproducibility of the experiments. The adaptive strategy was also successfully validated in simulations using predefined sweeping trajectories as reference criteria. The results of this Ph.D. thesis reflect the applicability of gas-sensitive microdrones in a variety of scenarios of gas release. Effective counteractive measures can be set in motion after accidents involving gas emissions with the aid of spatially resolved gas concentration and wind data collected with micro-drones. Monitoring of geochemically active regions, landfills, CO2 storage facilities, and the localization of gas leaks are further areas of application. T3 - BAM Dissertationsreihe - 109 KW - Autonomous gas-sensitive micro-drone (micro UAV) KW - estimation of wind speed and direction KW - gas distribution mapping KW - gas source Localization PY - 2013 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-497 SN - 978-3-9815944-1-6 SN - 1613-4249 VL - 109 SP - 1 EP - 273 PB - Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) CY - Berlin AN - OPUS4-49 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - THES A1 - Perret, William T1 - Welding Simulation of Complex Automotive Welded Assembly - Possibilities and Limits of the Application of Analytical Temperature Field Solutions N2 - Before the development of computational science, heat conduction problems were mainly solved by analytical techniques. Analytical solutions are exact solutions of differential equations; the investigated physical phenomena, for instance the temperature, are solved locally for one single point independently of the rest of the investigated structure resulting in extremely short computational times. These analytical solutions are however only valid for some simple geometries and boundary conditions making their applications for complex industrial geometries directly not possible. Numerical techniques, such as the Finite Element Method, enable overcoming this problem. However, the numerical simulation of the structural heat effect of welding for complex and large assemblies requires high computational effort and time. Therefore, the wide application of welding simulation in industry is not established, yet. The aim of this study is to combine the advantages of analytical and numerical simulation methods to accelerate the calibration of the thermal model of structure welding simulation. This is done firstly by calibrating automatically the simulation model with a fast analytical temperature field solution and secondly by solving the welding simulation problem numerically with the analytically calibrated input parameters. In order to achieve this goal, the analytical solution of the heat conduction problem for a point source moving in an infinite solid was extended and validated against reference models until a solution for a volumetric heat source moving on a thin small sheet with several arbitrary curved welding paths was found. The potential of this analytical solution by means of computational time was subsequently demonstrated on a semi-industrial geometry with large dimensions and several curved welds. The combined method was then transferred to an industrial assembly welded with four parallel welds. For this joint geometry, it was possible to apply the extended analytical solution. The calibration of the simulation model was done automatically against experimental data by combining the extended fast analytical solution with a global optimisation algorithm. For this calibration, more than 3000 direct simulations were required which run in less computational time than one corresponding single numerical simulation. The results of the numerical simulation executed with the analytically calibrated input parameters matched the experimental data within a scatter band of ± 10 %. The limit of the combined method is shown for an industrial assembly welded with eight overlap welds. For this joint geometry, a conventional numerical approach was applied, since no analytical solution was actually available. The final simulation results matched the experimental data within a scatter band of ± 10 %. The results of this work provide a comprehensive method to accelerate the calibration of the thermal model of the structure welding simulation of complex and large welded assemblies, even though within limitation. In the future, the implementation of this method in a welding simulation tool accessible to a typical industrial user still has to be done. T3 - BAM Dissertationsreihe - 108 KW - Schweißen KW - industrielle Anwendung KW - Simulation KW - analytische Lösung KW - komplexe Geometrie PY - 2013 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-505 SN - 978-3-9815944-0-9 SN - 1613-4249 VL - 108 SP - 1 EP - 183 PB - Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) CY - Berlin AN - OPUS4-50 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - THES A1 - Grandke, Julia T1 - Quality Assurance in Immunoassay Performance N2 - Nach wie vor fehlen allgemein anerkannte Qualitätskriterien zum Vergleich von Immunoassays, und die Durchführungsbedingungen der Assays unterscheiden sich sehr zwischen verschiedenen Laboratorien. Um dieses Problem anzugehen, wurde der Einfluss von verschiedenen Parametern auf die Leistungsfähigkeit der Assays untersucht, speziell für verschiedene Enzym-Immunoassays (EIAs) für die anthropogenen Marker Koffein (CAF) und Carbamazepin (CBZ). Ein besonderer Schwerpunkt wurde dabei auf die Parameter Temperatur, Assayformat und Kombination aus Enzym und Substrat gelegt. Der Parameter Temperatur wurde systematisch für jeden einzelnen Inkubationsschritt der direkten EIA Formate für beide Analyten untersucht; hierbei kamen sowohl das chromogene Substrat 3,3’,5,5’- Tetramethylbenzidin (TMB) wie auch das fluorogene Substrat 3-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)-propionsäure für das Enzym Meerrettichperoxidase (HRP) zum Einsatz. Eine Temperaturerniedrigung während des Kompetitionsschrittes führte zu einer Verbesserung der Assaysensitivität um den Faktor 10 für CBZ bzw. 15 für CAF, unabhängig davon welches Enzymsubstrat benutzt wurde. Experimente bei Raumtemperatur zeigten die geringsten Variationskoeffizienten, wodurch belegt werden konnte, dass der Randeffekt minimiert wird. Der Einfluss des Assayformats auf die unterschiedlichen Leistungskriterien wurde anhand der Bestimmung von CAF in Konsumgütern untersucht. Zusätzlich zu HRP und ihren Substraten wurde auch das Enzym Alkalische Phosphatase (AP) und das chromogene Substrat para-Nitrophenylphosphat sowie ein fluoreszierendes Substrat, 4-Methylumbelliferylphosphat, eingesetzt. Sieben Qualitätskriterien wurden definiert und validiert, um Immunoassays zu vergleichen. Die Bewertung der vier Kriterien (Sensitivität, Messbereich, relativer dynamischer Bereich sowie Güte der Anpassung) der Standardkurven ergab, dass das direkte Format dem indirekten Format überlegen ist; das HRP TMB Format zeigte hierbei die besten Ergebnisse. Drei zusätzliche Kriterien für eine anwendungsbezogene Analyse von Realproben, in diesem Fall CAF- enthaltende Getränke und Kosmetika, bestätigten dieses Ergebnis hinsichtlich Richtigkeit und Präzision innerhalb einer Platte (intra-plate) und zwischen verschiedenen Platten (inter-plate). Die Kombination aus Enzym und Substrat wurde untersucht, indem mehrere direkte CBZ Assays zur Analyse von Wasserproben eingesetzt wurden; in dieser Arbeit wurden drei HRP Assays und vier AP Assays mit Lumineszenzdetektion untersucht. Die HRP Assays erreichten eine bessere Sensitivität und eine geringere quantifizierbare Konzentration verglichen mit den AP Assays. Nur die HRP Assays und der Assay, welcher das chemilumineszierende „AP juice“ Substrat nutzt, konnten die Anforderungen für die vier Kriterien der Standardkurven erfüllen; alle anderen AP Assays wurden auf Grundlage der Kriterien im weiteren Verlauf nicht mehr für die Analyse der Realproben herangezogen. Der AP juice Assay ist nur auf Zulaufproben anwendbar, während alle HRP Assays gemäß intra- und inter-plate Präzision sowohl für Abwasserproben von Zu- und Ablauf genutzt werden können. Einzig die HRP Assays sind geeignet, um Oberflächengewässer zu analysieren; es zeigte sich, dass der HRP TMB Assay die besten Resultate liefert, weil jede Art von Wasserprobe mit einer hohen Präzision quantifiziert werden kann. Ob diese Qualitätskriterien, abgeleitet von den Standardkurven sowie der Anwendung auf Realproben, auf andere Immunoassayformate zum Zwecke der Qualitätssicherung übertragbar sind, muss noch gezeigt werden. N2 - Generally accepted quality criteria for the comparison of immunoassays are still missing and assay conditions vary greatly between different laboratories. To address this problem, the influence of different parameters on the overall assay performance was assessed, specifically for different enzyme immunoassays (EIAs) for the anthropogenic markers caffeine (CAF) and carbamazepine (CBZ). Special emphasis was dedicated to the parameters temperature, assay format and enzyme-substrate combination. The temperature parameter was systematically studied for all incubation steps of the direct EIA formats employing the photometric horseradish peroxidase (HRP) substrate 3,3’,5,5’- tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) and the fluorometric HRP substrate 3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)propionic acid for both analytes. A temperature decrease only during the competition step led to an increase in assay sensitivity by a factor of 10 to 15 for CBZ and CAF, respectively, independent of the enzyme substrate used. Room temperature experiments yielded the smallest coefficients of variations, minimizing the edge effect. The influence of the assay format on different performance parameters was studied with the determination of CAF in consumer products. In addition to the HRP substrates, the enzyme alkaline phosphate (AP) and its chromogenic substrate para-nitrophenyl phosphate and a fluorescent substrate, 4-methylumbelliferyl phosphate, were employed. Seven quality criteria were defined and validated to compare these immunoassays. The evaluation of the four criteria (sensitivity, measurement range, relative dynamic range and goodness of fit) for the standard curves revealed that the direct format is superior to the indirect format, with the HRP TMB format showing the best performance. Three additional criteria for an applicationdriven analysis of real samples, in this case CAF-containing beverages and cosmetics, confirmed this result in terms of accuracy as well as intra- and inter-plate precision. The enzyme-substrate combination was investigated when several direct CBZ assays were applied to the analysis of water samples; here, three HRP assays and four AP assays were studied, along with luminescence detection. The HRP assays reached better sensitivities and lower quantifiable concentrations compared to the AP assays. Only the HRP assays and the chemiluminescent AP juice assay fulfilled the requirements for the four criteria applied to standard curves; all other AP assays were not considered for application to real samples based on these criteria. The AP juice assay can only be employed for influent samples whereas all HRP assays are applicable to influent and effluent wastewater samples according to intra- and inter-plate precision. Furthermore, the HRP assays alone are suitable for surface water analysis; here, the chromogenic HRP TMB assay yielded the best results, as any type of water sample can be quantified with high precision. Whether these quality criteria, derived here for standard curves as well as their application to real samples, can be transferred to other immunoassay formats for quality assurance remains to be shown. T3 - BAM Dissertationsreihe - 107 PY - 2013 SN - 978-3-9815748-9-0 SN - 1613-4249 VL - 107 PB - Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) CY - Berlin AN - OPUS4-51 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - THES A1 - Mull, Birte T1 - Investigation of an active air sampling strategy for biocides, PCBs and PAHs at low air change rates N2 - Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Entwicklung einer Luftprobenahmestrategie mit geringen Probenahmevolumina für Biozide, polychlorierte Biphenyle (PCB) und polyzyklische aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe (PAK) bei niedrigen Luftwechselraten. Zunächst wurde eine analytische Messmethode für ein GC-MS-MS System entwickelt, bevor in Elutionsversuchen mit Standardlösungen ein geeignetes Adsorbermaterial für die Luftprobenahmen dieser Verbindungsklassen ausgewählt wurde. Die Anforderungen an das Adsorbermaterial waren eine schnellere und leichtere Aufarbeitung mit einem geringeren Lösemittelverbrauch als es für den häufig verwendeten Polyurethanschaum (PU) und das XAD-Adsorbens der Fall ist. Die Luftprobenahmequalität des ausgewählten Adsorbermaterials wurde in Versuchen in einer Mikro- Kammer (Micro-Chamber/Thermal Extractor™ (μ-CTE™, Markes International)), die ebenfalls mit Standardlösungen beladen wurde, mit der des PU-Schaums verglichen. Anschließend wurden der Einfluss der Temperatur, Luftbewegung, Luftwechselrate und relativer Luftfeuchtigkeit auf das Emissionsverhalten der Biozide, PCBs und PAKs in Versuchen mit geringen Probenahmevolumina in der μ-CTE, in 23 L und 24 L Emissionsmesskammern und in Vitrinen mit einem Volumen von 27 L mit selbst getränkten Holzproben untersucht. Außerdem wurde eine aktive Probenahmestrategie für niedrige Luftwechselraten erfolgreich in einer 24 L Emissionsmesskammer getestet. Mit der entwickelten Probenahmemethode wurden Volumina von 24-50 L gesammelt und Nachweisgrenzen von 1-27 μg m-3 konnten damit erreicht werden. Ein Styroldivinylbenzol-Polymer wurde als geeignetes Adsorbermaterial ausgewählt. Mit 200 mg dieses Adsorbers können mindestens 100 ng μL-1 der ausgewählten Biozide, PCBs und PAKs ohne Durchbrüche gesammelt werden, was einem Konzentrationsbereich von 3000-6250 μg m-3 für die geringen verwendeten Probenahmevolumina entspricht. Die entwickelte Probenahmemethode wurde bereits erfolgreich in verschiedenen Projekten eingesetzt, in denen reale Holzproben in der μ-CTE untersucht wurden und ebenfalls Innenraumprobenahmen mit geringen Probenahmevolumina durchgeführt wurden. In diesen Versuchen wurde die entwickelte Methode mit einer weiteren Methode verglichen, für die ein anderes Adsorbermaterial verwendet wird. N2 - The aim of this study was to develop a low volume air sampling strategy for biocides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) at low air change rates. Firstly a method of measurement for the GC-MS-MS system had to be created before an adsorbent for the air sampling of these compound classes was selected in elution experiments with target compound solutions. The key requirements for the adsorbent were that it had to engender a faster and easier work-up process while reducing solvent consumption, as it is not the case for the frequently used polyurethane foam (PUF) and XAD adsorbents. Using the selected adsorbent, air sampling quality was tested and compared with the one of PUF in experiments performed in a Micro-Chamber/Thermal Extractor™ (μ- CTE™, Markes International) with target compound solutions. To achieve air sampling under the aforementioned conditions the influences of temperature, air circulation, air change rate and relative humidity on the emission behavior of the selected biocides, PCBs and PAHs were investigated. This investigation was carried out with self soaked wood samples in low volume air sampling experiments in a μ-CTE, 23 l and 24 l emission test chambers and 27 l showcases. Furthermore, an active air sampling strategy for biocides, PCBs and PAHs at low air change rates was successfully tested in a 24 l emission test chamber. Sampling volumes of 24-50 l were tested with the developed low volume air sampling strategy with limits of quantification between 1-27 μg m-3. A styrene divinylbenzene polymer was selected as a suitable adsorbent and sampling of at least 100 ng μl-1 of biocides, PCBs and PAHs without breakthroughs were possible with 200 mg of this polymer. This corresponds to a concentration range of 3000-6250 μg m-3 for these low sampling volumes. The low volume air sampling method developed in this study was successfully applied in projects investigating real wood samples in the μ-CTE as well as in low volume indoor air samples. In these experiments the applicability of the method was partly compared with a method using a different adsorbent. T3 - BAM Dissertationsreihe - 103 KW - SVOC KW - Biocides KW - Emission test chamber KW - Showcase KW - Micro-chamber PY - 2013 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-555 SN - 978-3-9815748-3-8 SN - 1613-4249 VL - 103 SP - 1 EP - 136 PB - Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) CY - Berlin AN - OPUS4-55 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - THES A1 - Wawrzyn, Eliza T1 - Novel routes in flame retardancy of bisphenol A polycarbonate/impact modifier/aryl phosphate blends N2 - Die hohe Nutzung elektronischer Geräte und die damit verbundenen Ansprüche an den Brandschutz verstärken das Interesse an umweltfreundlich flammgeschützten Bisphenol A Polycarbonat (PC) basierten Materialien. Diese Arbeit befasst sich mit der Entwicklung neuer und verbesserter Flammschutzsysteme für schlagzähmodifizierte PC/Aryl phosphate. Durchgeführte Untersuchungen umfassen Pyrolyse (TG, TG-FTIR, ATR-FTIR, NMR), Entflammbarkeit (LOI und UL94) sowie Brandverhalten (Cone Calorimeter bei verschiedenen Bestrahlungsstärken) der Materialien. Ein Ansatz zur Verbesserung der Rückstandsbildung von PC/ABSPTFE+Aryl phosphate ist der Austausch von Bisphenol A Diphenylphosphat (BDP) gegen neue Aryl phosphate. Zwei neue Flammschutzmittel wurden synthetisiert: 3,3,5-Trimethylcyclohexylbisphenolbis(diphenylphosphat) (TMC-BDP) und Bisphenol A-bis(diethylphosphat) (BEP). TMC-BDP ist thermisch beständiger als BDP, es werden daher verstärkt chemische Reaktionen zwischen den Komponenten von PC/ABSPTFE+Aryl phosphate erwartet. BEP hingegen sollte die Vernetzung des Rückstands durch Einbringen von Phosphatgruppen erhöhen. Es konnte jedoch bei keiner der neuen Verbindungen eine Verbesserung des Flammschutzes im Vergleich zu PC/ABSPTFE+BDP festgestellt werden. BEP vernetzt sich in PC/ABSPTFE vorzugsweise mit sich selbst anstatt mit PC und für TMC-BDP waren die Ergebnisse ebenso gut wie für BDP. BDP ist bereits ein hoch optimiertes Flammschutzmittel für PC/ABSPTFE Systeme. Zur Etablierung eines neuen Schlagzähmodifizierers, der neben den mechanischen auch die Flammschutzeigenschaften des Materials verbessert, wurde das bisher in PC/ABSPTFE/BDP verwendete ABS durch einen Silikon-Acrylat-Kautschuk (SiR) mit hohem Polydimethylsiloxan (PDMS)- Anteil ersetzt. PDMS verschlechtert die von BDP hervorgerufenen Gas- und Festphasenmechanismen und reagiert zudem während der Verbrennung mit PC. Durch die Reaktionen von PDMS-PC und PDMS-BDP in PC/SiRPTFE/BDP wird anorganischer Siliziumdioxid-Rückstand gebildet, der sich zum kohlenstoffhaltigen Rückstand addiert und den LOI um 10% im Vergleich zum PC/ABSPTFE/BDP System verbessert. SiR mit hohem PDMS-Anteil wird daher als Ersatz für ABS in schlagzähmodifizierten PC/BDP Blends vorgeschlagen. Zur Erhöhung des Flammschutzes wurden verschiedene Additive zu PC/SiRPTFE/BDP hinzugefügt: (i) Schichtsilikate: Talk und organisch modifizierte Schichtsilikate (LS), (ii) Metallhydroxide: Magnesiumhydroxid (Mg(OH)2) und Böhmit (AlO(OH)), (iii) Metalloxide und –carbonate: Magnesiumoxid (MgO), Siliziumdioxid (SiO2) und Kalziumcarbonat (CaCO3) sowie (iiii) hydrierte Metallborate: Zinkborat (ZnB), Kalziumborat (CaB) und Magnesiumborat (MgB). Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die PC/SiRPTFE/BDP+Additiv Blends sehr empfindlich auf chemische (z.B. Hydrolyse) und physikalische (z.B. Viskosität) Effekte reagieren. Die starke Deformation von PC/SiRPTFE/BDP Materialen macht es schwierig den Rückstand zu optimieren. Zusammenfassend werden ZnB, MgB und CaB zur Verbesserung des Flammschutzes von PC/SiRPTFE/BDP empfohlen. Der Flammschutz verbessert sich dabei in Bezug auf Entflammbarkeit, Brandlast sowie maximale Wärmabgaberate des Materials. Die Ergebnisse der Arbeit ermöglichen die Auswahl des besten Flammschutzmittels, Schlagzähmodifizierers und anorganischen Füllstoffs zur Herstellung von flammgeschützen PC basierten Werkstoffen. N2 - The massive use of electronic engineering products accompanied by high demands on fire safety has led to increasing interest in environmentally friendly flame retardancy of bisphenol A polycarbonate (PC) based materials. In this work, novel routes for enhancing the flame retardancy of PC/Impact Modifier/Aryl phosphate were studied with respect to pyrolysis (TG, TG-FTIR, ATR-FTIR, NMR), flammability (LOI and UL 94) and fire behavior (cone calorimeter at different irradiations). To improve charring of PC/ABSPTFE+Aryl phosphate, the exchange of bisphenol A bis(diphenyl phosphate) (BDP) with novel aryl phosphates was proposed. Two novel flame retardants were synthesized: 3,3,5-trimethylcyclohexylbisphenol-bis(diphenyl phosphate) (TMC-BDP) and bisphenol A- bis(diethylphosphate) (BEP). TMC-BDP was more stable than BDP, thus gave a potential to increase the chemical reactions between the components of the PC/ABSPTFE+Aryl phosphate, whereas more reactive BEP was expected to increase the cross linking activity with the polymer matrix. Nevertheless, the corresponding blends did not enhance the flame retardancy compared to PC/ABSPTFE+BDP. BEP in PC/ABSPTFE preferred to cross-link with itself instead of with PC, thus it showed poor fire protection performance. TMC-BDP gave as good results as BDP in PC/ABSPTFE material. The results delivered evidence that BDP possesses a high degree of optimization in PC/ABSPTFE system. To provide a novel impact modifier improving not only mechanical properties but also the fire retardancy of PC/BDP material, the replacement of highly flammable acrylonitrilebutadiene- styrene (ABS) with silicon acrylate rubber (SiR) with high content of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) was studied. In PC/SiRPTFE/BDP the replacement of ABS is beneficial, but PDMS worsened the BDP gas phase and condensed phase action. PDMS reacted also with PC during combustion. PDMS-PC and PDMS-BDP interactions led to silicon dioxide. In fact, the inorganic residue of PC/SiRPTFE/BDP contributed to fire residue and greatly improved the LOI of about 10 % in comparison to PC/ABSPTFE+BDP system. Thus, the use of SiR with high PDMS content is proposed as replacement of ABS in PC/Impact Modifier/BDP blend. To enhance the fire protection, the PC/SiRPTFE/BDP was combined with several adjuvants: (i) layered fillers: talc and organically modified layered silicate (LS), (ii) metal hydroxides: magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) and boehmite (AlO(OH)), (iii) metal oxides and carbonate: magnesium oxide (MgO) and silicium dioxide (SiO2) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) as well as (iiii) hydrated metal borates: zinc borate (ZnB), calcium borate (CaB) and magnesium borate (MgB). It was demonstrated that the blend PC/SiRPTFE/BDP+filler is very sensitive to chemical (e.g. hydrolysis) and physical (e.g. viscosity) effects. Additionally,the large deformations of PC/SiRPTFE/BDP materials make difficult to optimize the char. Overall, the ZnB, MgB and CaB are proposed for enhancing the flame retardancy of PC/SiR/BDP with respect to flammability results, reduction of fire hazard and maximum of heat release rate. The results of this work enable the understanding of various mechanisms controlling the fire behavior and thus effective selection of the most appropriate flame retardant, impact modifier and inorganic fillers for producing fire resistant PC based polymers. T3 - BAM Dissertationsreihe - 102 KW - flame retardancy KW - pyrolysis KW - decomposition KW - bisphenol A polycarbonate KW - flammbility PY - 2013 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-565 SN - 978-3-9815748-2-1 SN - 1613-4249 VL - 102 SP - 1 EP - 126 PB - Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) CY - Berlin AN - OPUS4-56 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - THES A1 - Natte, Kishore T1 - Synthesis of novel polymeric hybrid nanoparticles with enhanced interfacial and colloidal properties for biomedical studies N2 - Die geringe Größe von Nanopartikeln (Durchmesser < 100 nm) gewährleistet sowohl eine hohe spezifische Oberfläche sowie Permeabilität durch eine Vielzahl biologischer Systeme. Als Folge weisen Nanopartikel (NP) eine starke Wechselwirkung mit biologischen Systemen auf, wodurch diese in den letzten Jahren zunehmend in der biomedizinischen Forschung Anwendung fanden. Aufgrund der relativ geringen Toxizität sowie der Möglichkeit zur Einführung unterschiedlicher funktioneller Gruppen eignen sich besonders auf Siliziumdioxid (Silica)basierende Nanopartikel für biomedizinische Studien. Der Schwerpunkt dieser Doktorarbeit lag in der Synthese und Charakterisierung von neuartigen Hybrid-NP mit verbesserten Eigenschaften für biologische Studien. Insbesondere soll eine Unterdrückung der Proteinadsorption erlangt werden sowie stark fluoreszierende NP in Gegenwart serumreicher Medien erhalten werden. Zu Beginn wird der Syntheseweg zur Darstellung hoch fluoreszierender Silica-Nanopartikel präsentiert, durch kovalente Anbindung des Alexa Farbstoffs und nachfolgender Ummantelung durch eine zusätzliche Silicahülle. Diese Nanopartikel wurden mittels dynamischen Lichtstreuung (DLS), Transmissionselektronenmikroskopie (TEM) und Fluoreszenzspektroskopie untersucht. Letztgenannte Methode beinhaltet die Bestimmung der absoluten Quantenausbeute solcher streuenden Suspensionen mit einer integrierenden Kugelkonfiguration sowie die Zuordnung von Helligkeitswerten. Bei geringer Ausdehnung der Hülle zeigen Silica NP mit Kern-Schale Architektur eine glatte Oberfläche und hohe Quantenausbeuten, in Größenordnung der freien Farbstoffe. Eine Erhöhung der Menge an Hüllen-Precusor führt zu einer himbeerartigen Morphologie der Oberfläche und einer Verminderung der Quantenausbeute. Es folgt die Darstellung zweier unterschiedlicher Typen neuartiger Silica- Polyethylenglykolhybride NP (H-SiO2-PEG und G-SiO2@PEG) unter Verwendung desselben polymerprecursors oder desselben polymerprecursors: Der Einfluss der Konzentration des polymerpreursors Poly(ethylen glykol) methylether-3-(triethoxysilyl) propylurethan (mPEG- IPTES) auf die Partikeleigenschaften wurde ausführlich untersucht. Bei polymergepfropften NP bestimmt die Konzentration des polymer precursors die Dichte des angekoppelten PEGs und folglich die Hydrophobieder NP Oberfläche. Dagegen beeinflusst bei kondensierten NP der precursor die Partikelgröße, aber nicht die Dichte der Polymerketten auf der Oberfläche. Abschließend wird der Einfluss der Polymerlänge auf die Verminderung der BSA Adsorption beschrieben. SNPs@PEG mit verschiedenen Molekulargewichten des mPEG (Mw = 350, 2000 und 5000 g/mol) wurden an die NP Oberfläche durch nucleophile Substitution von tosyliertem mPEG an aminierte Silica NP kovalent angebunden (hemisches Pfropfen). Die resultierenden Hybrid-NP wurden einheitlich mittels DLS, TEM, Fourier- Transformations-Infrarotspektroskopie (FTIR), thermogravimetrischer Analyse (TGA)und Photoelektronenspektroskopie (PES) charakterisiert. Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) wurde in verschiedenen Konzentrationen als Modellprotein verwendet, um die Ausbildung der protein corona durch Adsorption an ursprünglichen sowie an modifizierten NP oder modifizierten NPs(SNPs@PEG) zu untersuchen. Das Zeta-Potenzial der ursprünglichen Silica NP sowie SNPs@PEG (Mw = 350 g/mol) zeigen eine dynamische Entwicklung der Nanopartikel- protein coronain Abhängigkeit von der Inkubationsdauer (0, 24, 48 h). Im Gegensatz hierzu konnte bei SNPs@PEG mit Mw 2000 g/mol eine signifikante Minderung der Ausbildung der protein corona sowie der zeitlichen Entwicklung beobachtet werden. Insgesamt wird die protein corona stark von den adsorptionshindernden Eigenschaften des PEGs beeinflusst. N2 - The reduced size of nanoparticles (diameter < 100 nm) confers them high specific surface areas and permeability through many biological pathways resulting in high interaction with biological systems. Therefore, in the recent years, nanoparticles (NPs) have increasingly found many applications in biomedical research. Herein, silica-based NPs are among the most promising candidates for biomedical studies due to their relative low toxicity and the possibility of functional variability. The main focus of this thesis work has been the synthesis and characterisation of novel hybrid NPs with enhanced properties for biomedical studies. More specifically, suppression of protein adsorption and achievement of highly fluorescent NPs in serum-rich media are well focused. First, a chemical strategy for the preparation of highly fluorescent silica nanoparticles by covalent attachment of Alexa dyes and subsequent shielding by an additional pure silica shell is well presented. These nanoparticles were investigated by Dynamic light scattering (DLS), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and fluorescence spectroscopy, the latter includes determination of absolute fluorescence quantum yields of such scattering suspensions with an integrating sphere setup and the assignment of fluorescence intensity values. At low shelling extension core-shell fluorescent silica nanoparticles show smooth surfaces and high quantum yields, even comparable to those for free dyes. However, by increasing the amount of shell precursor, nanoparticle surfaces show raspberry morphologies and decay of the quantum yields. Secondly, two different types of novel silica-poly(ethylene glycol) hybrid nanoparticles (H- SiO2-PEG and G- SiO2@PEG) have been synthesized by use of the same polymer precursor: Here the influence of concentration of the polymer precursor poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether-3-(triethoxysilyl) propyl urethane (mPEG-IPTES) on the particle properties was scrutinised. For polymer grafted NPs, the concentration of polymer precursor increases the PEG density and the hydrophobicity of the NPs surface. On the other hand, for condensated NPs, the polymer precursor influences the size, but not the density of polymer chains on the NPs surface, which indicates that PEG on the surface of the NPs effectively reduces the adsorption of Bovine serum albumin (BSA). Finally, the influence of polymer length on the ability to repel BSA adsorption onto nanoparticles is reported. SNPs@PEG with different molecular weights (mPEG: 350, 2000 and 5000 g/mol) were synthesized by nucleophilic substitution of tosylated mPEG to aminated silica nanoparticles (chemical grafting). The resulted hybrid nanoparticles were consistently characterized by DLS, TEM, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). BSA at different concentrations were used as a model protein to study the protein-corona formation after adsorption onto the pristine and modified nanoparticles (SNPs@PEG). For pristine SNPs and SNPs@PEG (MW = 350 g/mol), zeta potential at different incubation times (0, 24 and 48 h) show a dynamic evolution of the nanoparticle-protein corona. Conversely, for SNPs@PEG with MW ≥ 2000 g/mol, a significant suppression of corona formation and time evolution was observed. In resume, protein corona is strongly influenced by the adsorption inhibition of PEG surfaces. T3 - BAM Dissertationsreihe - 99 KW - Silica KW - PEG KW - Fluoreszierende Nanopartikel KW - Hybridnanopartikel KW - Hybrid nanoparticles KW - Corona KW - Fluorescent particles PY - 2013 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-596 SN - 978-3-9815360-7-2 SN - 1613-4249 VL - 99 SP - 1 EP - 115 PB - Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) CY - Berlin AN - OPUS4-59 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - THES A1 - Purohit, Purv J. T1 - Characterization of Polymer Nanocomposites based on Layered Double Hydroxide and Carbon Nanotubes N2 - Polymer based nanocomposites by melt blending of synthesized ZnAl-Layered Double Hydroxide (ZnAl-LDH) and Polyolefines [Polypropylene (PP) and Polyethylene (PE)] and also Polylactide (PLA) with MgAl-LDH and multi-walled Carbon Nanotubes (MWCNT) were investigated. The LDH was organically modified by using a surfactant sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate (SDBS) to increase the interlayer spacing of the LDH, so that polymer chains can intercalate the inter layer galleries. Some amount of maleic anhydride grafted PP and PE were incorporated in the nanocomposites based on PP and PE respectively to enable the interaction of the non-polar polymers (PP and PE) with the LDH. The resulting morphology was investigated by a combination of Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC), Small and Wide-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS and WAXS) and broadband dielectric relaxation spectroscopy (BDS). In case of LDH based nanocomposites (PP, PE and PLA), the homogeneity of the nanocomposites and the average number of stack size (4 – 7 layers) were determined using scanning micro focus SAXS (BESSY II). DSC investigations of PP and PE based LDH nanocomposites showed a linear decrease in crystallinity as a function of filler concentration. The extrapolation of this decreasing dependence to zero estimates a limiting concentration of 40 wt% and 45 wt% respectively. Above this amount of LDH the crystallinity of the polymers is completely suppressed. This finding is in agreement with WAXS investigations where the area below the crystalline reflections and amorphous halo were calculated and used to estimate the degree of crystallinity. PLA/LDH nanocomposites presented a little different behavior, the crystallinity of the polymer at first increases and then decreases as a function of LDH concentration. In this case the crystallinity will be suppressed at around 15 wt%. The dielectric spectra of the nanocomposites based on PP/LDH and PE/LDH show several relaxation processes which are discussed in detail. The intensity of the dynamic glass transition increases with the concentration of LDH. This is attributed to the increasing concentration of the exchanged anion dodecylbenzene sulfonate (SDBS) which is adsorbed at the LDH layers. Therefore, a detailed analysis of the β-relaxation provides information about the structure and the molecular dynamics in the interfacial region between the LDH layers and the polymer matrix which is otherwise dielectrically invisible (low dipole moment, non-polar). In case of PLA/LDH, three relaxation processes related to dynamic glass transition and one localized fluctuations were identified and analyzed in detail to understand the morphology. For this system, one dynamic glass transition process originates from the fluctuations of the interfacial molecules, second from the PLA matrix (polar polymer, C=O in the main chain) and the third from segments confined between the intercalated LDH sheets. Additional thermal investigations were carried out for PP/LDH and PLA/LDH samples. The increase in the rigid amorphous fraction (RAF) was observed in both the cases. This is attributed to the polymer molecules which are in close proximity to LDH sheets, as they hinder their mobility. This is analyzed in detail and related to the BDS results. PLA based MWCNT nanocomposites were investigated by BDS as initial result. The findings showed that between 0.5 and 1 wt% of CNT, a percolating network of the nanotubes is formed which leads to DC conductivity. This is due to the high aspect ratio of the CNTs and also the van der Waals interaction between the nanotubes which forms a network leading to conductivity. T3 - BAM Dissertationsreihe - 98 KW - Polymer Nanokomposite KW - Characterization KW - Carbon Nanotubes KW - Layered Double Hydroxide KW - Polymer KW - Nanocomposites KW - Hydrotalkit KW - Struktur-Eigenschaften Beziehungen KW - Charakterisierung KW - Kohlenstoffnanoröhren PY - 2013 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-604 SN - 978-3-9815360-6-5 SN - 1613-4249 VL - 98 SP - 1 EP - 144 PB - Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) CY - Berlin AN - OPUS4-60 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - THES A1 - Scholz, Christian T1 - Low friction slip-rolling contacts - Influences of alternative steels, high performance thin film coatings and lubricants N2 - Due to the growing environmental awareness worldwide, containment provisions for CO2 emissions in mobility systems and increasing performance requirements the demands on mechanical systems and their materials continuously rise. These high demands require the implementation of new technical approaches, for example of light-weight strategies in automotive powertrains, and directly raise questions about the suitability of the most promising technical solution. Two basic parameters, the surface hardness of the tooth flanks and the core fatigue strength of the tooth root, illustrate exemplarily increasing demands on material grades used for gear wheels in automotive powertrains. In addition to light-weight strategies, a reduction in friction and an increase of the fatigue lifetime are two other major development directions to strive the mentioned targets. It is clear that any kind of solution must show an equal application profile, preferably an improvement, compared to the state-of- the-art solutions. For tribological systems, the following paths may offer lower friction and higher load carrying capabilities: 1. Alternative base oils and additives (such as esters, polyglycols), 2. Thin film coatings (e.g. DLC) and/or 3. Novel steel metallurgies. In previous investigations on the slip-rolling resistance of thin film coatings (a-C, ta-C, Zr(C,N)) the substrates were mainly made of the bearing steels 100Cr6H and Cronidur 30. Applying contact pressures of up to P0max = 2.9 GPa (FN = 2,000 N), the samples were tested up to 10 million load cycles in endurance tests. The aim of the present work is to broaden the research by varying the input parameters. Newly developed engine oil mixtures, high performance thin film coatings and alternative steel solutions are intensively investigated in highly stressed slip-rolling contacts at lubricant temperatures of 120°C. Specifically, in using new steel metallurgies, i.e. the high toughness and high strength steels V300 and NC310YW (Aubert & Duval) as well as CSS-42L (Latrobe Specialty Steel Company), in combination with thin film coatings, even if they compete in the uncoated state, the Hertzian contact pressures could be increased up to P0max = 4.2 GPa (FN = 5,000 N) without any surface failures of coating or substrate. It was shown that selected thin film coatings can minimize the wear rates down to nearly ‘zero-wear’ in highly stressed contacts [Woy08] [Woy11]. In addition, the studies revealed not only the high potential in slip-rolling resistance, but also a possible friction reduction down to 0.047 by use of uncoated steels with increased toughness. Compared to steels like 100Cr6H and Cronidur 30 this means a reduction in friction of approximately 40% under identical testing conditions. Different test series with newly developed base oil-additive formulations were investigated with specific emphasis on the frictional behavior of selected bio-no-tox EP/AW additives and friction modifiers. Additional influencing factors like the structural and surface conditions of the steels/coatings before and after the tests were analyzed by means of REM, EDX, XRD and TEM. T3 - BAM Dissertationsreihe - 96 KW - hoch zähe Si-Stähle KW - geringe Reibung KW - DLC KW - Zr (C, N) PY - 2013 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-624 SN - 978-3-9815134-2-7 SN - 1613-4249 VL - 96 SP - 1 EP - 153 PB - Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) CY - Berlin AN - OPUS4-62 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER -