TY - JOUR A1 - Covi, Patrick A1 - Tondini, Nicola A1 - Korzen, Manfred A1 - Lamperti Tornaghi, Marco T1 - Hybrid fire following earthquake testing of a steel braced frame N2 - The paper presents the results of an experimental-numerical analysis aimed at investigating the performance of passive fire protections applied to steel columns under fires following earthquake (FFE) scenarios. In particular, five FFE tests on columns belonging to a steel braced frame were performed at the Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM, Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing) by means of hybrid fire testing technique. In particular, an internal steel column of the ground floor belonging to a three-bay, four-storey concentrically braced steel building was tested, whilst the effect of the remainder of the structure was numerically simulated by means of an equivalent axial stiffness. Since the structure has a low degree of redundancy, the loss of a column can trigger global structural collapse. Two FFE tests were performed without any fire protection system and the other FFE tests were performed with three different fire protection solutions, i.e. conventional and seismic-resistant calcium silicate boards as well as vermiculite spray-based protection. Each column was firstly subjected to horizontal and vertical displacements resulting from seismic nonlinear time-history analysis performed on the numerical model of the case study. Then, the furnace was switched on and the ISO 834 standard fire curve was applied to the specimen. Numerical models were developed and calibrated on experimental data using different types of finite elements. The calibrated models with the presence of axial and rotational springs accurately captured the transition from pre- to post-buckling behavior. These findings highlight the importance of accurate modelling of the boundary conditions. Despite the fact, that seismic intensity was at life safety limit state, it was also found that the seismic damage of the fire protections was not high enough to hinder the fire performance of the fire protections. KW - Fire following earthquake KW - Concentrically braced steel frames KW - Fire protections KW - Numerical simulations KW - Experimental tests KW - Post-earthquake fire PY - 2025 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-645186 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.143731 SN - 0950-0618 VL - 496 SP - 1 EP - 22 PB - Elsevier CY - Oxford AN - OPUS4-64518 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Chacon Castro, Jose P. A1 - Schartel, Bernhard T1 - Translating Flame Retardant Strategies: Analogy from Polyolefins and Bisphenol A polycarbonates to Poly(limonene carbonate) N2 - Poly(limonene carbonate)—PLimC—offers a novel sustainable alternative to traditional polymers, as it is derived from renewable limonene and carbon dioxide as monomers. Proposing PLimC as a future technical polymer for applications in electrical and electronic (E&E) devices, construction, and transportation, PLimC must meet specific fire prevention standards to be deemed suitable. Starting from the chemical structure of PLimC, strategies in analogy to flame retarded bisphenol A polycarbonates (PC), PC blends, and polyolefins (PO) are investigated to identify the most effective route to enhance the flame resistance of PLimC. This study utilized four halogen-free flame-retardant (FR) systems: APP + pentaerythritol (standard intumescent system in PO), a phosphorus flame retardant+PTFE as anti-dripping agent (used in PC blends), metal hydroxide ATH (widely used in PO), and potassium sulfonate salt (specific solution for PC). Applying these FRs at typical PC, PC blends, and PO loadings, we aim to understand their effect on PLimC and evaluated the different flame-retardant routes. Our experimental evaluations focused on the thermal properties, flammability, and fire behavior of each system. ATH emerged as the most effective, reducing the effective heat of combustion from 29.3 MJ kg⁻¹ to 18.6 MJ kg⁻¹ and the total heat evolved from 95 to 55 MJ m⁻². It also resulted in an increase in the limiting oxygen index from 17.1 to 26 vol.-% O2, along with a UL 94 HB40 rating. The intumescent system also exhibited considerable flame retardancy, highlighting the similarity of PLimC’s fire behavior to that of PO rather than PC KW - Poly(limonene carbonate) KW - Flame retardancy KW - Sustainability KW - Intumescent systems KW - Metal hydroxides KW - Sulfonate salts KW - Phosphorus flame retardants PY - 2025 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-643257 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2025.111711 SN - 1873-2321 SN - 0141-3910 VL - 242 SP - 1 EP - 18 PB - Elsevier Ltd. AN - OPUS4-64325 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Mallikarjun, Jhenkhar A1 - Gorbushina, Anna A1 - Kuzyakov, Yakov A1 - Koester, Moritz A1 - Castro, Rodrigo A1 - Yudina, Anna A1 - Abdallah, Khaled A1 - Matus, Francisco J. A1 - Dippold, Michaela A. T1 - Post-fire recovery of temperate and mediterranean ecosystems: An interplay between fire severity, soil nutrients, and vegetation from early-stage to decadal-scale dynamics N2 - Wildfires strongly alter soil properties, which in turn affect ecosystem recovery over extended periods, though long-term impacts are less certain. This study investigated a 14-year post-fire chronosequence in Chile’s mediterranean and temperate humid forests, revealing ecosystem-specific soil properties and nutrient recovery mechanisms. By analysing sites at successional stages, the chronosequence approach assessed temporal changes and ecosystem recovery, revealing long-term wildfire effects on soil dynamics and nutrients recovery. Wildfires raised soil bulk density to 0.9 g cm−3 in humid temperate and 1.2 g cm−3 in mediterranean ecosystems. Mediterranean soils experienced greater compaction from organic matter loss, soil aggregate destruction, ash-clogged pores, and topsoil erosion. Soil texture shifts were ecosystem-dependent: mediterranean soils increased 10–12 % in clay and silt through ash redistribution and aggregation, while temperate soils saw sand content rise by 0.74 % and 0.32 % yearly at 0–5 and 5–10 cm depths from thermal disaggregation and erosion. Ground vegetation recovers quickly, but physical soil properties like bulk density require over 14 years to return to pre-fire conditions. In humid temperate forests, ash input initially increased soil pH (4.8 to 5.8), reducing acidity, mitigating aluminium toxicity, while increasing nutrient availability. Base cation stocks increased in mediterranean woodlands (e.g., Ca: up to 0.41 Mg ha−1 y−1) due to ash retention, lower leaching, and ash infiltration into subsoil. Nutrient stocks in humid forests recovered slowly (Ca: 0.087–0.13 Mg ha−1 y−1) due to rainfall-driven leaching and low subsoil reserves. Carbon and N losses were restricted to the litter horizon in temperate forests, recovering via fire-resistant tree inputs, whereas mediterranean soils suffered severe C and N depletion from vegetation loss, erosion, and low N fixation. Fire effects and recovery are ecosystem-specific, shaped by landscape, geology, hydrology, and vegetation resilience. Understanding how fire regimes affect soil and nutrient recovery is vital for improving projections in fire-prone regions. KW - Historical fire & Wildfire KW - Nutrients Ecosystem recovery & Vegetation succession KW - Chronosequence approach KW - Losses of nutrients & Nutrients stocks KW - Wildfire PY - 2025 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-642918 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2025.109431 SN - 0341-8162 VL - 260 SP - 1 EP - 13 PB - Elsevier B.V. AN - OPUS4-64291 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - An, Q. A1 - Bäßler, Ralph A1 - Hertwig, Andreas A1 - Rehfeldt, Rainer A1 - Hidde, Gundula A1 - Otremba, Frank T1 - Investigation of Mechanical Stress and B10 Exposure on FKM Polymer N2 - Mechanical stress often accelerates the failure of polymer materials. The aim of this research is to study the interaction between the sealing material FKM and biofuels B10 (heating oil with 10% biodiesel). The mechanical stress test was carried out in a special apparatus. Both mechanical and non-mechanical stress tests were conducted on specimens at 20, 40, and 70 °C for 28 days to document changes in mass, volume, and tensile properties. Both increasing temperature and mechanical stress have a significant effect on the tensile strength of the FKM polymer when exposed to B10. The combination of increasing temperature and mechanical stress induced rupture within 2 h. It was also established that FKM polymer with pre-exposure in B10 survived longer during mechanical stress compared to specimens exposed only to air. With the support of infrared (IR) spectroscopy, we were able to confirm the penetration of B10 into the FKM polymer. T2 - TMS 2024 Annual Meeting & Exhibition Teilnahme mit Präsentation CY - Orlando-Florida / USA DA - 03.03.2024 KW - Biofuels KW - Sealing materials KW - Mechanical stress KW - Change in tensile properties PY - 2024 SN - 978-3-031-50349-8 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50349-8_108 SP - 1253 EP - 1261 PB - Springer CY - Orlando-Florida / USA AN - OPUS4-59638 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Eberwein, Robert A1 - Hajhariri, Aliasghar A1 - Davide, Camplese A1 - Giordano, Emrys Scarponi A1 - Valerio, Cozzani A1 - Frank, Otremba T1 - Experimental investigation on the behavior of thermal super insulation materials for cryogenic storage tanks in fire incidents N2 - The number of vehicles using or transporting cryogenic fuels such as Liquefied Hydrogen (LH2) or Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) increases fast in the land transportation sector. Does this also entail new risks? The storage of cryogenic fuels requires tanks with Thermal Super Insulations (TSI) to keep the fluid cold and limit the formation of boil-off gas. TSI has proven itself in some applications since the middle of the 20th century, but in the land transport sector they are still quite new, where accidents involving fires, collisions, and their combination are to be expected. This work focuses on investigating the behavior of different types of TSI while exposed to a heat source representing a fire. To this aim, a High-Temperature Thermal Vacuum Chamber (HTTVC) was applied, which allows the thermal loading of a thermal insulation material in a vacuum and measuring the heat flow transported through the TSI in parallel. In this study, the results of 6 samples are presented regarding 3 types of MLI, rock wool, perlites, and microspheres. The thermal exposure caused different effects on the samples. In practice, this can be connected to the rapid release of flammable gases as well as to a Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion (BLEVE). These results are relevant for reducing the risks to people and infrastructures in the progressive establishment of tanks for cryogenic fluids in our industry and society. The data presented in the study can be used to improve the design of tanks and TSIs, the assessment of accident scenarios, and the development of measures for first responders. KW - Liquefied hydrogen KW - Liquefied natural gas KW - Tanks KW - Fire KW - Insulation KW - MLI KW - Perlite KW - Rock wool KW - Microspheres PY - 2024 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-599947 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2024.04.131 SN - 0957-5820 VL - 187 SP - 240 EP - 248 PB - Elsevier AN - OPUS4-59994 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Wu, Hongyi A1 - Hofmann-Böllinghaus, Anja ED - Makovická Osvaldová, L. ED - Hasburgh, L. E. ED - Das, O. T1 - Applying experimental determined kinetic parameters to the simulation of vegetation fire in the Fire Dynamics Simulator N2 - Although intense wildfire research has been done in the US and in Australia, it cannot be transferred directly to the situation in Europe as the local vegetation has a significant influence on the fire spread. The EU-funded project TREEADS and the so-called German pilot within the project are concentrating on wildfire in Europe. Extensive experimental research is done on local vegeta-tion in Germany and the experimental results are used to adjust the Fire Dynam-ics Simulator (FDS) to local vegetation as a fuel in the calculations. The particle model and the boundary fuel model are developed for the simulation of forest fires. Both models require the kinetic input for the dehydration, pyrolysis, and char oxidation process. This three-step simplified model describes the basic fuel combustion kinetic. Most published simulations use the default kinetic input of pine needles from FDS user manual. To adjust the simulation to local vegetation, the corresponding kinetic parame-ters have been experimental investigated. Samples of pine needles, moss and other falling leaves were collected, air dried and grinded into powder. The TG analysis of all these samples were done under different heating rate of 5, 10 and 20K/min. The activation energy and the corresponding pre-exponential factor were calcu-lated. The results show that fire spread depends significantly on the vegetation and comparison with small scale experiments show good agreement using the new kinetic parameters. The new model is applied to a larger scenario and will be compared to the results of large-scale experiments for further validation of the model. T2 - Wood and Fire Safety 2024 CY - Štrbské Pleso, Slovakia DA - 12.05.2024 KW - Forest KW - Simulation KW - FDS KW - Vegetation fire KW - Fire Dynamics Simulator KW - Kinetic parameters PY - 2024 SN - 978-3-031-59177-8 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-59177-8_45 SP - 389 EP - 396 PB - Springer CY - Cham AN - OPUS4-60252 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Manzello, Samuel L. A1 - Hofmann-Böllinghaus, Anja T1 - Editorial on special issue on wildland–urban interface (WUI) fires N2 - Research and standardization in the field of wildland fires that spread into urban areas, known as wildland–urban interface (WUI) fires, are of paramount importance globally. Recent WUI fires in Chile, Greece, Japan, and the United States of America states of California and Hawaii, following many other WUI fire disasters, have demonstrated the complex nature of this globally important problem. For these reasons, the editor in chief of Fire and Materials, Stephen Grayson, invited Samuel L. Manzello and Anja Hofmann to develop a special issue on WUI fires. In support of this effort, an open call was posted on the Fire and Materials website, soliciting papers on the following topics: • Pre- and post-fire data to understand fire spread and ignition of materials in WUI communities. • Firebrand generation from materials. • Ignition of both vegetative and human-made fuels from WUI fire exposures of direct flame contact, radiant heat, and firebrands. • Human behavior in WUI fires. • Physical modeling studies of WUI fire behavior and structure ignition. • Structure ignition mitigation strategies. • New material development to harden structures to WUI fire exposures. KW - Editorial KW - Wildfire PY - 2025 DO - https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3308 SN - 1099-1018 SN - 0308-0501 VL - 49 IS - 5 SP - 509 EP - 511 PB - Wiley CY - New York, NY AN - OPUS4-63920 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Peters, Simon A1 - Pittrich, Tim A1 - Stelzner, Ludwig A1 - Weise, Frank A1 - Meschke, Günther T1 - Concretes containing blended-cements with reduced carbon-dioxide emissions: A chemo-thermo-hygro-mechanical model for elevated temperatures N2 - A comprehensive analysis aimed at understanding and assessing the high-temperature behavior of concretes containing blended cements (CEM III/A, CEM II/B-Q, and CEM IV), characterized by low carbon-dioxide emissions (during clinker’s production) is necessary to reliably model the damage in the concrete, thermal spalling included. To this purpose, a numerical chemo-thermo-hygro-mechanical model is formulated, to investigate – among other phenomena – heat transmission and pore pressure for different aggregate types. Based on an available hydration model, a dehydration model is established to numerically investigate the evolution of dehydration and porosity at elevated temperatures. Based on the properties of concrete and cement constituents on multiple scales, an analytical homogenization process is proposed to predict the thermal conductivity of the concrete. This process is later validated and implemented into a macroscopic modeling framework. Chemo-thermo-hygro-mechanical analyses show that the dehydration characteristics of blended low carbon-dioxide release cements may increase pore pressure in the concrete by up to 13% compared to the concrete containing ordinary Portland cement. In addition, aggregates exhibiting high thermal conductivity may contribute to a further increase (even more than 35%) in pore pressure compared to aggregates with low thermal conductivity. Last but not least, the proposed model provides the basis for the reduction of the number of the parameters commonly required in the chemo-thermo-hygro-mechanical modeling of cementitious materials. KW - Concrete at high temperature KW - Dehydration KW - Multiscale modeling KW - Thermal conductivity KW - Chemo-hygro-thermal analysis KW - Micromechanics PY - 2025 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-635894 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2025.106163 SN - 0958-9465 VL - 163 SP - 1 EP - 17 PB - Elsevier CY - Amsterdam AN - OPUS4-63589 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Hofmann-Böllinghaus, Anja A1 - Anderson, J. T1 - Editorial: Special issue facades N2 - Facade fires are of growing concern worldwide. Severe facade fires in different parts of the world as well as activities in many countries regarding the testing of facades show the urgency of the fire safety challenges in façade fires. The need for knowledge and a wide Archive of work in this area has become evident after recent incidents which involved extensive facade fires. These include the tragic fires in Dubai and Grenfell Tower in 2017 in the United Kingdom. In many cases, the widespread live news coverage of the events and size of These fires has emphasized the need for progress in the understanding of the processes involved in these fires and put pressure upon the fire safety engineering community to find effective solutions. KW - Facade fire PY - 2021 DO - https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3001 SN - 0308-0501 SN - 1099-1018 VL - 45(5) IS - Special issue: Facade fire safety SP - 585 PB - Wiley CY - Oxford AN - OPUS4-53093 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Tóth, Péter A1 - Hofmann‐Böllinghaus, Anja A1 - Dumont, Fabien A1 - Anderson, Johan A1 - Sjöström, Johan A1 - Bergius, Mikael A1 - Chiva, Roman A1 - Lalu, Octavian T1 - Finalisation of the European Approach to Assess the Fire Performance of Facades—Brief Information on the Outcome of the Project N2 - This research was conducted within the framework of project SI2.825082, funded by the European Commission—DG GROW. The project's objective was to finalise a European approach for assessing the fire performance of façades under medium and large fire exposure conditions. The national standards BS 8414‐1:2020/BS 8414‐2:2020 and DIN 4102‐20:2017 served as the foundation for developing the new assessment method. As part of the project, a theoretical round robin, initial testing activities and a large‐scale experimental round robin were carried out. The theoretical round robin aimed to examine how different laboratories interpreted the preliminary assessment method. Subsequently, the initial testing phase explored the design of the fire source, combustion chamber and secondary opening. The experimental round robin involved testing four façade systems across three laboratories using the assessment method documents, resulting in 12 tests for medium‐scale and 12 for large‐scale exposure—24 tests in total. These tests provided data to develop a calibration scheme and define appropriate performance criteria for classification. In this paper, the representatives of the project consortium summarise the research process and outline the proposed testing and evaluation methodology, which is intended to form the foundation of a future European testing standard for façades. The article also highlights the need for further research to establish rules for extended application of test results. KW - Facade KW - Testing PY - 2026 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-654731 DO - https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.70042 SN - 0308-0501 SP - 1 EP - 27 PB - John Wiley & Sons Ltd. AN - OPUS4-65473 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Tabaka, Weronika A1 - Timme, Sebastian A1 - Lauterbach, Tobias A1 - Medina, L. A1 - Berglund, L. A. A1 - Carosio, F. A1 - Duquesne, S. A1 - Schartel, Bernhard T1 - Bench-scale fire stability testing - Assessment of protective systems on carbon fibre reinforced polymer composites N2 - Fire resistance testing of components made of carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRP) usually demands intermediate-scale or full-scale testing. A bench-scale test is presented as a practicable and efficient method to assess how different fire protective systems improve the structural integrity of CFRPs during fire. The direct flame of a fully developed fire was applied to one side of the CFRP specimen, which was simultaneously loaded with compressive force. Three different approaches (film, non-woven, and coatings) were applied: paper with a thickness in the range of μm consisting of cellulose nanofibre (CNF)/clay nanocomposite, nonwoven mats with thickness in the range of cm and intumescent coatings with a thickness in the range of mm. The uncoated specimen failed after just 17 s. Protection by these systems provides fire stability, as they multiply the time to failure by as much as up to 43 times. The reduced heating rates of the protected specimens demonstrate the reduced heat penetration, indicating the coatings’ excellent heat shielding properties. Bench-scale fire stability testing is shown to be suitable tool to identify, compare and assess different approaches to fire protection. KW - Fire stability KW - Bench-scale fire resistance KW - Carbon fibre reinforced polymer KW - Protective coatings PY - 2021 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-532401 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymertesting.2021.107340 SN - 0142-9418 SN - 1873-2348 VL - 102 SP - 7340 PB - Elsevier CY - Amsterdam AN - OPUS4-53240 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Jauregui Rozo, Maria A1 - Sunder, S. A1 - Tabaka, Weronika A1 - Klaffke, Benjamin A1 - Ruckdäschel, H. A1 - Schartel, Bernhard T1 - Unveiling aluminum diethyl phosphinate dual identity: Transfer from epoxy resins to glass fiber-reinforced composites N2 - This study examines the transfer of the flame-retardant aluminum diethyl phosphinate (AlPi) from epoxy resins to composites and the impact of AlPi on fire behavior and fire stability. Further, the effects of different particle sizes and the addition of zinc hydroxy stannate (ZHS) and inorganic silicate (InSi) are investigated. The research provides a detailed analysis of the fire behavior, fire stability, pyrolysis, flame-retardant modes of action, and flame retardancy index. Interestingly, the particle sizes did not significantly affect the flammability, fire behavior, or fire stability in the systems investigated. AlPi acts primarily in the gas phase, releasing phosphorus that yields flame inhibition. Adding glass fibers (GFs) to the epoxy resin boosts the flame retardancy in the condensed phase, reducing the heat release rate (HRR), total heat release (THR), and peak heat release rate (PHRR) by about 60%. This improvement is largely due to replacing fuel and forming a protective layer during burning. Despite the differences between thermoset and composite, the study demonstrates an effective transfer of flame-retardant properties from epoxy resins to fiber-reinforced composites, significantly enhancing the flame retardancy performance in both material systems. KW - Aluminum diethyl phosphinate KW - Epoxy resins KW - Fire behavior KW - Fire stability KW - Gas-phase active KW - Glass fiber-reinforced composites KW - Particle sizes PY - 2025 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-643013 DO - https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.29911 SN - 1548-0569 SN - 0272-8397 VL - 46 IS - 14 SP - 12981 EP - 12999 PB - Wiley AN - OPUS4-64301 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Tabaka, Weronika A1 - Meinel, Dietmar A1 - Schartel, Bernhard T1 - Sacrifice Few to Save Many: Fire Protective Interlayers in Carbon- Fiber-Reinforced Laminates N2 - The fire protection of carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates often relies on flame-retardant coatings, but in some applications, their efficacy may diminish upon direct fire exposure due to rapid pyrolysis. This study introduces an innovative approach by integrating protective interlayers within the laminate structure to enhance the fire resistance. Various materials, including ceramic composite WHIPOX, titanium foil, poly(etherimide) (PEI) foil, basalt fibers, rubber mat, and hemp fibers, were selected as protective interlayers. These interlayers were strategically placed within the laminate layout to form a sacrificial barrier, safeguarding the integrity of the composite. Bench-scale fire resistance tests were conducted, where fire (180 kW/m2) was applied directly to the one side of the specimen by a burner while a compressive load was applied at the same time. Results indicate significant prolongation of time to failure for CFRP laminates with protective interlayers, which is up to 10 times longer. This innovative approach represents a potential advance in fire protection strategies for CFRP laminates, offering improved resilience against fire-induced structural failure. KW - Composites in fire KW - Fire resistance KW - Fire retardant interlayers KW - Laminate design KW - Carbon fibre reinforced PY - 2024 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-601943 DO - https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.4c01408 SN - 2470-1343 VL - 9 IS - 22 SP - 23703 EP - 23712 PB - ACS AN - OPUS4-60194 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Tabaka, Weronika A1 - Schartel, Bernhard T1 - Less is More: Optimised Fire Performance in Glass Fibre-reinforced Polybutylene Terephthalate Laminates with Concentrated Flame Retardant Top Layer N2 - To achieve optimum fire performance while maintaining mechanical integrity, flame retardants (FR) were strategically concentrated in the surface layer of a two-layer glass fibre-reinforced polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) laminate structure. Three potentially synergistic FR systems were selected to improve the fire performance of glass fibre-reinforced PBT: boehmite (AlOOH) with melamine polyzinc phosphate (MPZnP), aluminium diethyl phosphinates (AlPi) with melamine cyanurate (MC), and expandable graphite (EG) with melamine polyphosphate (MPP). Limited Oxygen Index (LOI) and UL-94 testing highlighted the influence of laminate architecture on flammability. The cone calorimeter results showed that increasing the FR concentration in the top layer significantly reduced both the peak heat release rate (PHRR) and the maximum average rate of heat emission (MARHE), with improvements depending on the specific FR system used. The laminate L-PBT/GF/AlOOH/MPZnP with a 2:2 thickness ratio showed outstanding performance, achieving a 45 % reduction in MARHE compared to composites with uniform FR distribution. This result showcases the superior thermal barrier properties and synergistic behaviour of AlOOH and MPZnP. The fire performance of laminates containing AlPi and MC was strongly influenced by the distribution and concentration of AlPi/MC. The EG/MPP system was found to be highly effective, forming a protective intumescent layer that significantly reduced both HRR and MARHE, demonstrating the effectiveness of strategically concentrating FR in the top layer. KW - Glass fibres KW - PBT KW - Flame retardants KW - Composites KW - Laminates KW - Fire behaviour KW - Flammability PY - 2025 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-626381 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomc.2025.100577 SN - 2666-6820 VL - 16 SP - 1 EP - 15 PB - Elsevier CY - Amsterdam AN - OPUS4-62638 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Hahn, Sarah‐K. A1 - Gnutzmann, Tanja A1 - Meinert, Marion A1 - Hofmann-Böllinghaus, Anja A1 - Oberhagemann, Dirk A1 - Krause, Ulrich T1 - Incipient Fires—Definition, Detection and Extinguishment by Laypersons N2 - The earlier a fire is noticed, the less developed it is and the easier it can be prevented respectively stopped, even by laypersons. Within the research project ‘TEBRAS’ the incipient phase of fires was investigated in detail. In the course of the project, it became apparent that the definition of what exactly the incipient phase of a fire encompasses is not definite and depends on the disciplines dealing with the subject ‘fire’. Based on the results of a literature review, an inquiry under experts and laypersons as well as practical fire tests a definition for the phenomenon of the incipient fire was developed which divides it into four phases. Driving key factors for each phase are identified considering the main parameters to detect and extinguish the fire. KW - Developing fires KW - Development of fires PY - 2025 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-649310 DO - https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.70025 SN - 0308-0501 VL - 50 IS - 1 SP - 3 EP - 10 PB - Wiley AN - OPUS4-64931 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Wagner, Jan A1 - Häfner, P. A1 - Reimann, H.-A. A1 - Schartel, Bernhard T1 - Valorization of Natural Fibers in Flame Retarded Poly(lactic acid) N2 - Extensive research has explored natural fiber reinforced composites, typically focusing on a single fiber within a polymer matrix. Comprehensive comparisons across different natural fibers in the same polymer, which are critical for industrial material selection, remain limited. This work presents a systematic comparison of untreated hemp, flax, and sisal fibers incorporated at varying fiber lengths and loadings into flame retarded poly(lactic acid) (PLA). Fire behavior, thermal, and mechanical responses were investigated through thermogravimetry, UL 94, and cone calorimetry, alongside crystallinity, molecular weight (MW), and microstructural analysis. Fiber incorporation reduced the peak heat release rate (pHRR) by up to 30 % in 30 wt% hemp, attributed to protective layer formation, but increased flammability in UL 94. A phytic acid melamine salt combined with expandable graphite and 20 wt% hemp produced incomplete combustion at 50 kW/m², raising char residue from 4 to 24 wt% and halving pHRR. Petrella plots revealed that fiber addition alone lowered fire load and flashover propensity as effectively as phytic acid melamine; with hemp, phytic acid and expendable graphite, the flashover hazard and fire load were halved. MW was preserved while crystallinity and modulus increased with fiber content. Hemp delivered the most consistent reinforcement, while optimized processing enabled flax and sisal to improve stiffness. Performance gains were strongest when individual fibers were dispersed via optimized processing, preventing bundle fracture under load. Plasma modification of the fibers improved the maximum tensile strength in the composites. A practical guide is provided for valorizing natural fibers in PLA composites, demonstrating routes to bio-based, compostable materials with improved fire safety and mechanical performance suitable for industrial processing. KW - Poly(lactic acid) KW - Hemp KW - Sisal KW - Flax KW - Flame retardant KW - Phytic acid PY - 2026 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-653038 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2025.114575 SN - 2352-4928 VL - 50 SP - 1 EP - 41 PB - Elsevier Ltd. AN - OPUS4-65303 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Spitzer, Stefan A1 - Pandal, Adrián A1 - Rodríguez, Manuel Velasco A1 - Schmidt, Martin A1 - Danzi, Enrico A1 - Dufaud, Olivier A1 - Janovsky, Bretislav T1 - Investigations on different distribution systems for dusts inside the 20L-sphere N2 - The determination of several safety characteristics for dusts requires the dispersion of it in air. This is normally conducted using two vessels, one with an overpressure holding the dust and dispersing it into the second one, where the explosion takes place, through a nozzle. This procedure has the disadvantage that some dusts cannot be conveyed through the nozzle properly. Another disadvantage is that the pressure balancing between the two vessels depends on the dust loading and especially for heavy dusts and high loadings the initial pressure inside the explosion vessel might be reduced. Flocky dusts or dusts that might be dangerous to convey through a thin nozzle with an overpressure (nano powders, zirconium) are also difficult to test according to the existing standards and may not be tested with the standard nozzles, that are so far used for the determination of safety characteristics. One very recent example, testing nitrocellulose, raised the question, whether some dusts even pose a risk being distributed and pressed through a nozzle for the testing device and, in worst case, for the operator. Previous researchers have developed alternative types of nozzles for specific types of dust, but provide limited evaluation of their performance relative to standard nozzles. Additionally, researchers have not provided sufficient geometry so that they can be reproduced by others. One alternative nozzle for the dispersion of flocky or coarse dusts is stated in the ISO standard but not described there either. This article investigates four types of nozzles: The two standard ones that are widely used already, an alternative type, that got introduced into the international standard in 2016 but is still seldomly used and one that was constructed to overcome some of the observed disadvantages. The injection curves are compared with and without dust loadings as well as the explosion characteristics. Eventually, a suggestion is given for different types of dusts. KW - Dust explosions KW - Safety characteristics PY - 2024 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jlp.2024.105492 SN - 0950-4230 VL - 92 SP - 1 EP - 12 PB - Elsevier B.V. AN - OPUS4-61697 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Schiaroli, Alice A1 - Camplese, Davide A1 - Scarponi, Giordano Emrys A1 - Eberwein, Robert A1 - Ustolin, Federico A1 - Cozzani, Valerio T1 - Modelling the behaviour of cryogenic liquid hydrogen tanks engulfed in fire N2 - The safe use of liquid hydrogen as a clean fuel requires a deep understanding of its behaviour in accident scenarios. Among other scenarios, the possible involvement of cryogenic liquid hydrogen tanks in engulfing fires is of particular concern, due to the potentially severe consequences. This study proposes a computational fluid dynamic model suitable to simulate the behaviour of liquid hydrogen tanks equipped with multi-layer insulation (MLI) engulfed in fire. An original approach has been developed to assess the progressive degradation of the performance of the thermal insulation, that is crucial in determining the tank pressurization and failure. The model is validated against full-scale experimental fire tests. The outcomes of the model reproduce the progressive pressurization and the opening time of the pressure relief valve within 2 % error. The results demonstrate the importance of accounting for the dynamic evolution of the progressive degradation of the insulation when evaluating tank pressurization, and they highlight the limitations of empirical, simplified state-of-the-art approaches. Furthermore, the analysis evidences the key role of the fire temperature in governing tank response, stressing the need for proper fire characterization to support reliable modelling of fire scenarios and the development of emergency planning and mitigation strategies ensuring the structural integrity of liquid hydrogen tanks during fire attacks. KW - LH2 KW - LNG KW - Fire KW - Tank PY - 2026 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-652920 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2025.108319 SN - 0957-5820 VL - 206 SP - 1 EP - 14 PB - Elsevier Ltd. AN - OPUS4-65292 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Dudziak, Mateusz A1 - Dural, Esra A1 - Dey, R. A1 - Ullrich, M. S. A1 - Huth, Christian A1 - Thomson, C. A1 - Schartel, Bernhard T1 - Together We Can: Synergistic Flame Retardancy by Melamine Polyphosphate and Phosphorylated Microalgae in Polylactide Biocomposites N2 - A strategy for enhancing the sustainable flame retardancy of polylactide (PLA) composites by partially replacing melamine polyphosphate (MPP), a commercial flame retardant proposed for PLA, with wastewater polyphosphate-enriched microalgae (P-Algae) has been explored. The incorporation of P-Algae at a 1:1 ratio with MPP leads to a notable synergistic effect, surpassing the expected additive behavior of the individual components. Comprehensive characterization encompassing thermogravimetric analysis coupled with FTIR, pyrolysis combustion flow calorimeter (PCFC), cone calorimeter, oxygen index (LOI), UL-94 tests, and rheological measurements—demonstrates that the presence of this biomaterial can significantly enhance flame retardant performance. Replacing 50% of MPP with P-Algae in PLA resulted in a 17% reduction in peak heat release rate (pHRR) and maintained a V-0 rating in UL-94 testing. The use of P-Algae does not compromise the flame retardancy of PLA but rather contributes positively, offering a promising path toward more sustainable flame-retardant systems. By leveraging naturally derived biomass, this approach aligns with the growing demand for novel eco-friendly technologies in polymer engineering. Insights into an innovative renewable additive as a functional and effective component in flame-retardant biocomposites have been achieved. KW - Flame retardancy KW - Melamine polyphosphate KW - Phosphorus- enriched microalgae KW - Polylactide PLA KW - Synergism PY - 2025 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-640539 DO - https://doi.org/10.1002/pat.70350 SN - 1099-1581 SN - 1042-7147 VL - 36 IS - 9 SP - e70350 PB - John Wiley & Sons Ltd. AN - OPUS4-64053 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Manes, M. A1 - El Houssami, M. A1 - Campbell, R. A1 - Sauca, A. A1 - Rush, D. A1 - Hofmann-Böllinghaus, Anja A1 - Andersson, P. A1 - Wagner, P. A1 - Veeneklaas, J. A1 - van Hees, P. A1 - Guillaume, E. T1 - Closing Data Gaps and Paving the Way for Pan-European Fire Safety Efforts: Part I—Overview of Current Practices for Fire Statistics N2 - The analysis of the current state of fire statistics and data collection in Europe and other countries is needed to increase awareness of how fire incidents affect buildings and to support pan-European fire prevention and fire mitigation measures. The terminology and data collected regarding fire incidents in buildings in the EU Member States were mapped to obtain meaningful datasets to determine common terminology, collection methodology, and data interpretation system. An extensive literature review showed that fire data collection systems have been instrumental in informing firefighting strategies, evidence-based planning, prevention, and educational programmes. Differences and similarities between fire data collection systems were also investigated. The amount and quality of the information in fire statistical recording systems appear to be influenced by the complexity and structure with which the data are collected. The analysis also examined the existing fire statistics in the EU Member States and a few other countries. Finally, a detailed investigation of the number of fires, fire deaths, and injuries from 2009 to 2018 in several countries was examined based on data from a report by CTIF. The trends showed differences attributable to the existing fire statistical practices in terms of terminology and data collection, and interpretation. Part II proposes a common terminology for selected fire statistical variables. The results provide relevant information regarding fire safety at the European level and should be used to guide the development of more uniform fire statistics across Europe. KW - Fire statistics KW - European project PY - 2023 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-575711 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-023-01415-6 SN - 1572-8099 SP - 1 EP - 44 PB - Springer CY - Heidelberg AN - OPUS4-57571 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - El Houssami, M. A1 - Försth, M. A1 - Fredriksson, H. A1 - Drean, V. A1 - Guillaume, E. A1 - Hofmann-Böllinghaus, Anja A1 - Sandinge, A. T1 - Fire safety of interior materials of buses N2 - This study provides an analysis on the fire safety of passengers and the fire protection of coaches and buses. A brief review of major bus fire incidents, an overview of current regulations in Europe, and their limitations are presented. The study finds that the current small-scale fire test methods described in UN ECE Reg No. 118 need to be replaced by test methods that can assess the reaction to fire of materials when exposed to ignition sources of varying sizes. To address these shortcomings, the study proposed an expert recommendation to update the material fire safety requirements and testing for buses. Additional measures are proposed, derived from objectives and strategies applied in other transport sectors, and can be tested through existing European and international standards, which are widely used by several industries. These measures aim to extend the time with tenable conditions for a safe evacuation in case of fire, reduce the degree of damage to buses, reduce the risk for fast and excessive thermal exposure on modern energy carriers needed for a more sustainable transport sector. KW - Fire KW - Bus interior materials KW - Rregulations PY - 2023 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-575700 DO - https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3134 SN - 1099-1018 SP - 1 EP - 15 PB - Wiley CY - London AN - OPUS4-57570 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Piechnik, Kira A1 - Heydick, Lukas A1 - Hofmann-Böllinghaus, Anja A1 - Klippel, Andrea T1 - Comprehensive laboratory study on smoke gases during the thermal oxidative decomposition of forest and vegetation fuels N2 - AbstractThis study investigates the composition of smoke gases in forest and vegetation samples to draw conclusions about the actual smoke gas composition during wildfires. The focus is particularly on regions with extensive pine forests, like in Eastern Germany. The relevance of smoke gases is well illustrated by the example of wildfires in Québec, influencing air quality in New York, in 2023. By employing a modified DIN tube furnace, a bench‐scale test set‐up, the research emphasizes the examination of smoke composition from tree species and ground cover, prioritizing gases while disregarding particles. Key smoke gases are identified as CO, CO2, SO2, HCN, C3H4O (acrolein) and CH2O (formaldehyde) and their concentrations are compared with Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGL) limits. Acknowledging the limitations of AEGL usage and the problem with direct quantitative comparison of toxicant concentrations (cf. ISO 29903‐1:2020), the study highlights variations in smoke composition across different samples. The results of the studies reveal a significant disparity in CO concentration between dry and fresh pine needles. Frequently, the AEGLs of key gases are exceeded significantly. The elemental analysis of the barks indicates distinct differences in composition, reflecting in the concentrations of smoke gases. The ratio of 1 mole of substance turnover to the identified key components will be used to determine input parameters for the subsequent numerical simulation. KW - Forest KW - Wildfire KW - Ignition PY - 2024 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-617744 DO - https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3253 SP - 1 EP - 12 PB - Wiley online library AN - OPUS4-61774 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Festag, Sebastian A1 - Esser, Jonas A1 - Maiworm, Björn A1 - Hofmann-Böllinghaus, Anja T1 - Herausforderungen des modernen Holzbaus: Erste statistische Erkenntnisse aus realen Gebäudebränden in Holzbauweise N2 - Hinsichtlich des Brandschutzes zeigt der durch die Bundesregierung geförderte Holzbau Herausforderungen gegenüber Massivbauweisen. Diese spiegeln sich in Erfahrungen von Feuerwehren wider, aber nun auch in statistischen Untersuchungen der Brandschadenstatistik der Vereinigung zur Förderung des deutschen Brandschutzes sowie der Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Leiterinnen und Leiter der Berufsfeuerwehren (AGBF) und des Deutschen Feuerwehrverbands (DFV). Im Zeitraum von 2013 bis 2017 wurden in der vfdb-Brandschadenstatistik Daten zu 5016 Alarmierungen bei Gebäudebränden in Deutschland systematisch mit einem einheitlichen Erfassungsbogen erfasst und seit 2016 „bemerkenswerte Brandeinsätze“ durch einen Evaluierungsbogen zu Maßnahmen des vorbeugenden Brand- und Gefahrenschutzes von AGBF/DFV. Grundlage des vorliegenden Beitrags sind die Auswertung und der Vergleich beider statistischer Datensätze hinsichtlich der Brände in Gebäuden in Holzbauweise. Es zeigt sich, dass der Holzbau mit brandschutztechnischen Herausforderungen verbunden ist. KW - Brandschutz KW - Brandstatistik PY - 2025 DO - https://doi.org/10.1002/bate.202400078 SN - 1437-0999 VL - 2025 IS - 102 SP - 1 EP - 8 PB - Wiley AN - OPUS4-63000 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Klippel, A. A1 - Hofmann-Böllinghaus, Anja A1 - Gnutzmann, Tanja A1 - Piechnik, K. T1 - Reaction-to-fire testing of bus interior materials: Assessing burning behaviour and smoke gas toxicity N2 - Although fire safety regulations for buses have been adapted in recent years regarding, for example, fire detection and engine fire suppression systems, the changes in regulations for bus interior materials are minimal. A comparison of fire safety regulations for interior materials in other transport sectors for trains, ships or aircraft reveals a much lower level of requirements for bus materials. Although repeated bus accidents as well as fire statistics show the danger a bus fire can pose to passengers. In particular, the combination of a fire incident and passengers with reduced mobility led to severe disasters in Germany and other European countries. To enhance the fire safety for passengers, the interior bus materials are crucial as the fire development in the bus cabin determines whether escape and rescue is possible. Against this background, bus interior materials were tested in different fire test scenarios. Measurement of a wide variety of parameters, for example, the mass loss, ignition time, smoke gas composition, heat release rate among others were carried out. Tested materials complied to the newest set of requirements. For this purpose, interior materials and their components had to be identified according to their chemical structure. Parts of the tests were funded by BASt (Federal Highway Research Institute) in the project 82.0723/2018. Experimental results show reaction-to-fire behaviour which lead to very limited times for escape and rescue in case of fire in a bus cabin. Based on the studies on fire behaviour and toxicity assessment, recommendations for improved fire safety regulations for interior materials could be made. KW - Burning behaviour KW - Bus interior materials KW - Cone calorimeter KW - DIN tube furnace KW - FTIR spectroscopy KW - Reference values KW - Smoke toxicity PY - 2023 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-576085 DO - https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3108 SN - 1099-1018 VL - 47 IS - 5 SP - 665 EP - 680 PB - Wiley CY - New York, NY AN - OPUS4-57608 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Anderson, J. A1 - Boström, L. A1 - Chiva, R. A1 - Guillaume, E. A1 - Colwell, S. A1 - Hofmann-Böllinghaus, Anja A1 - Toth, P. T1 - European approach to assess the fire performance of façades N2 - Several attempts have been made in the past to develop a European harmonized testing and assessment method for façades before the European commission decided to publish a call for tender on the topic. A project consortium from five countries (Sweden, UK, France, Germany and Hungary) applied to the call for tender and was contracted to develop a European approach to assess the fire performance of façades. 24 sub-contractors and 14 stakeholder entities were part of the project. The objective of the European project was to address a request from the Standing Committee of Construction (SCC) to provide EC Member States regulators with a means to regulate the fire performance of façade systems based on a European Approach agreed by SCC. The initial stages of this Project were focused on establishing a Register of the regulatory requirements in all Member States in relation to the fire Performance of façade systems, and to identify those Member States who have regulatory requirements for the fire performance façade systems which go beyond the current EN 13501 (reaction to fire and fire resistance) classification systems and to collate the details of these additional requirements. After having confirmed the regulatory needs a testing and classification methodology based on BS 8414 and DIN 4102-20 was developed to address the identified key performance and classification characteristics. This paper is a short overview of results the two-year development work, which Final Report published by the European Commission in 2018. KW - Facade KW - Regulation KW - Testing PY - 2021 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-530501 DO - https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.2878 SN - 1099-1018 VL - 45(5) IS - Special issue: Facade fire safety SP - 598 EP - 608 PB - Wiley CY - Oxford AN - OPUS4-53050 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Geoerg, Paul A1 - Schumann, Jette A1 - Holl, Stefan A1 - Holl, Maik A1 - Hofmann-Böllinghaus, Anja T1 - The influence of individual impairments in crowd dynamics N2 - The importance of empirical relations to quantify the movement of pedestrians through a facility has increased during the last decades since performance-based design methods became more common. Bottlenecks are of special interest because of their importance for egress routes and as they result in a reduced capacity. The empirical relations as the density-dependent movement speed or flow rate were derived by studies under laboratory conditions, which were usually conducted with populations of homogeneous characteristics forbetter control of influencing variables. If individual characteristics of a crowd become more heterogeneous, individuals were forced to adapt their individual movement and control individual manoeuvring. These unintended interactions lead to a different shape of the fundamental empirical relations. Here, we present results from a movement study under well-controlled boundary conditions in which participants with and without different characteristics of disabilities participated. To consider the effect of different heterogeneities on the capacity of a facility, fundamental diagrams are generated using the Voronoi method. If participants with visible disabilities (such as using assistive devices) are part of a crowd, significant differences relating to the shape of the empirical Relations and the capacities are found. This indicates that the heterogeneity of a Population leads to an increased interpersonal interaction which results in influenced movement characteristics. KW - Engineering egress data KW - Heterogeneity KW - Human behaviour KW - Movement characteristics KW - Pedestrian dynamics PY - 2020 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-508943 DO - https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.2789 SN - 0308-0501 VL - 45 IS - 4 SP - 529 EP - 542 PB - Wiley Online Libary CY - New Jersey, USA AN - OPUS4-50894 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Piechnik, Kira A1 - Hofmann-Böllinghaus, Anja A1 - Klippel, Andrea T1 - Self‐ignition of forest soil samples demonstrated through hot storage tests N2 - AbstractThe increasing threat of forest fires on a global scale is not only a matter of concern due to the potential harm they may cause to both human and animal life but also due to their significant role in exacerbating climate change. In light of these circumstances, one might inquire as to whether forest soil can self‐ignite and, if so, under what conditions and at what temperatures this phenomenon may occur. This question is being addressed in the German pilot “Fire science of wildfires and safety measures” of the EU project TREEADS, and the first results are presented below. The importance of basic research into the self‐ignition of forest soil cannot be underestimated, as it provides crucial knowledge to prevent forest fires and protect human and animal health. Furthermore, mitigating the occurrence of forest fires can also play a role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to global efforts to combat climate change. The procedure of the hot storage test is an effective means of determining whether a material can self‐ignite. During the investigation of six soil samples, it was found that five of them were indeed capable of self‐ignition. In addition to determining whether the material ignites, the modified hot storage test also analyzed the resulting smoke gases and measured their concentration. The research question of whether regional forest soil is capable of self‐ignition can be answered with yes based on these initial tests. Further experiments are needed to determine if self‐ignition causes forest fires. KW - FTIR KW - Hot storage KW - Ignition KW - Soil KW - Wildfire PY - 2024 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-594617 DO - https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3198 SN - 1099-1018 VL - 48 IS - 4 SP - 495 EP - 507 PB - Wiley CY - New York, NY AN - OPUS4-59461 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Nandish, Ranjith A1 - Knaust, Christian A1 - Hofmann-Böllinghaus, Anja A1 - Gnutzmann, Tanja A1 - Zehfuß, Jochen T1 - Simulation of wood pyrolysis with component-based mechanism N2 - This paper presents a comprehensive fire simulation study that models the pyrolysis process of beech wood using kinetic parameters with the Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS). The kinetic methodology is based on the application of these kinetic parameters to govern the underlying pyrolysis reactions. The primary objective was to numerically model the pyrolysis process for beech wood using both single-component (single-step, single reaction scheme) and multi-component (single-step, multi-reaction scheme) kinetic reaction schemes. The accuracy of the numerical model was validated by comparing FDS simulation results with experimental data obtained from thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and cone calorimeter tests. This approach aids in identifying reliable kinetic reaction input parameters for modelling wood fires. A case study was included to demonstrate the implementation of the kinetic reaction schemes. Numerical results from the TGA simulations for the small-scale pure cellulose test using the single-component approach exhibit consistency with the experimental data. Furthermore, the results demonstrated that the multi-component approach more accurately replicates the shape of the experimental curve for beech wood compared to the single-component approach. However, discrepancies in the tail regions of the curves obtained from the FDS simulations showed the need for further improvement in the modelling approach, particularly regarding the exclusion of char oxidation reactions, which needs to be investigated further. KW - Simulation KW - Wood PY - 2025 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-639272 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/s00231-025-03571-7 SN - 0947-7411 VL - 61 IS - 6 SP - 1 EP - 14 PB - Springer Science and Business Media LLC AN - OPUS4-63927 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Hofmann-Böllinghaus, Anja A1 - Klippel, Andrea A1 - Gnutzmann, Tanja A1 - Kaudelka, Sven A1 - Rabe, Frederik T1 - Influence of modern plastic furniture on the fire development in fires in homes: large-scale fire tests in living rooms N2 - About 80% of all fire fatalities in Germany occur because of fires in homes. It has been known for some time that modern materials (synonym for materials consisting mostly of synthetic polymers) tend to burn differently from older materials (synonym for materials consisting mostly of fibrous cellulosic substances) and it has been acknowledged that the amount of combustible plastics in homes has increased significantly over the last decades. To investigate the influence of modern furniture and ventilation conditions of fires in homes, a series of four large-scale tests in two Living rooms (LRs) with adjacent rooms (ARs) was performed by BAM and the Frankfurt fire service. Two LRs, one with older furniture and one with modern furniture, were tested twice each. Each test started with the ignition of a paper cushion on an upholstered chair. The influence of modern materials on the fire development was investigated, as well as the influence of the ventilation on the fire development. In all settings, an upholstered chair was the first burning item. Results of the test series show that fires in rooms with modern furniture develop faster than fires in rooms with older furniture. This is true for temperature development in the rooms as well as for smoke production. KW - Room fire KW - Furniture KW - Modern KW - Gas analysis KW - Smoke PY - 2021 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-527568 DO - https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.2934 VL - 45 IS - 1 SP - 155 EP - 166 PB - Wiley CY - London AN - OPUS4-52756 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Eberwein, Robert A1 - Hajhariri, Aliasghar A1 - Camplese, Davide A1 - Scarponi, Giordano Emrys A1 - Cozzani, Valerio A1 - Otremba, Frank T1 - A comparative study on insulation materials in tanks for the storage of cryogenic fluids in fire incidents N2 - Liquefied Hydrogen (LH2) or Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) establish themselves as important energy carriers in the transport sector. Its storage requires tanks with Thermal Super Insulations (TSI) to keep the transported fluid cold. TSI has proven itself in various applications over a long time, but not in the land transport sector, where accidents involving collisions, fires, and their combination are to be expected. The focus of this study is to investigate the behavior of different types of TSI when exposed to a heat source that represents a fire. Therefore, a High-Temperature Thermal Vacuum Chamber (HTTVC) was used that allows the thermal loading of thermal insulation material in a vacuum and measuring the heat flow through the TSI in parallel. Within this study, 5 samples were tested regarding 3 different types of MLI, rock wool, and perlites. The thermal exposure caused different effects on the samples. In practice, this can be connected to the rapid release of flammable gases as well as a Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion (BLEVE). These results are relevant for the evaluation of accident scenarios, the improvement of TSI, and the development of emergency measures. T2 - IMECE 2023 CY - New Orleans, Louisiana, USA DA - 29.10.2023 KW - LH2 KW - LNG KW - Fire PY - 2023 SP - 1 EP - 7 AN - OPUS4-58768 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Camplese, Davide A1 - Scarponi, Giordano Emrys A1 - Chianese, Carmela A1 - Hajhariri, Aliasghar A1 - Eberwein, Robert A1 - Otremba, Frank A1 - Cozzani, Valerio T1 - Modeling the performance of multilayer insulation in cryogenic tanks undergoing external fire scenarios N2 - Multilayer Insulation (MLI) is frequently used in vacuum conditions for the thermal insulation of cryogenic storage tanks. The severe consequences of the degradation of such materials in engulfing fire scenarios were recently evidenced by several large-scale experimental tests. In the present study, an innovative modelling approach was developed to assess the performance of heat transfer in polyester-based MLI materials for cryogenic applications under fire conditions. A specific layer-by-layer approach was integrated with an apparent kinetic thermal degradation model based on thermogravimetric analysis results. The modeling results provided a realistic simulation of the experimental data obtained by High-Temperature Thermal Vacuum Chamber tests reproducing fire exposure conditions. The model was then applied to assess the behavior of MLI systems for liquid hydrogen tanks in realistic fire scenarios. The results show that in intense fire scenarios degradation occurs rapidly, compromising the thermal insulation performances of the system within a few minutes. KW - Multilayer Insulation KW - Cryogenic Vessels KW - Liquefied Hydrogen KW - Liquefied Natural Gas KW - Safety KW - Fire PY - 2024 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-599418 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2024.04.061 SN - 0957-5820 VL - 186 SP - 1169 EP - 1182 PB - Elsevier B.V. AN - OPUS4-59941 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Eberwein, Robert A1 - Rogge, Andreas A1 - Behrendt, F. A1 - Knaust, Christian T1 - Dispersion Modeling of LNG-Vapor on Land – A CFD-Model Evaluation Study N2 - Based on methane from renewable resources, LNG is an alternative fuel for heavy and long-distance traffic in land transport. Contrary to its positive properties, the fuel contains risks from an explosion and extremely low temperatures for personal and infrastructure safety. CFD-models are suitable for doing risk analyses for arbitrary scenarios. For examining how to model for risk research the dispersion of LNG-vapor, this paper contains a model variant study, with an evaluation by experiments. This paper describes the use of the CFD-code ANSYS Fluent for simulating experiments of the ‘LNG Safety Program Phase II‘. The content of the well-documented experiments was the research of the vaporization rate of LNG on land and the dispersion of LNG-vapor in the air. Based on the comparison to two experiments, overall 12 CFD-model variants with varying thermal and turbulence parameters were examined how they affect the transient LNG-vapor dispersion in air. The definition of turbulence-boundary-condition at the domain borders had the biggest impact on modeling, followed by the turbulence model. The most accurate model variant had been applied for observing the spreading behavior of LNG-vapor in the air after evaporation on land and analyzing the influence of the LNG-composition to the dispersion. The results show that the mixture of LNG-vapor and the air in the free field is cooler than the ambient air and spreads like a heavy gas on the ground. KW - LNG KW - CFD KW - Heavy gas KW - Model evaluation PY - 2020 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jlp.2020.104116 VL - 65 SP - 104116 PB - Elsevier Ltd. AN - OPUS4-50697 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Eberwein, Robert A1 - Hajhariri, Aliasghar A1 - Camplese, D. A1 - Scarponi, G. E. A1 - Cozzani, V. A1 - Otremba, Frank T1 - Insulation Materials Used in Tanks for the Storage of Cryogenic Fluids in Fire Scenarios N2 - The importance of tanks for storing cryogenic fluids in the energy industry is increasing because of ongoing political conflicts and the implementation of more environmentally friendly energy sources. Key representatives for the application of cryogenic tanks are natural gas in the form of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) and hydrogen, e. g. in the form of Liquefied Hydrogen (LH2), for which significantly higher transport capacities can be achieved with the same transport volume using cryogenic storages than with storages based solely on overpressure. What applies to all cryogenic transported fluids in common is their condition that must be maintained. Hence heat flows into the preserved fluid must be minimized. Thermal super Insulations (TSI) based on e. g. multilayer insulations (MLI), perlites, and vacuum are utilized for this purpose and have already proven themselves in similar applications. However, for the use of tanks for cryogenic fluids in the transport sector, there is insufficient knowledge regarding the course and consequences of incidents, which is due to the still short period of use and the few documented incidents, hence few investigations carried out in this field. Typical scenarios in the transport sector represent car accidents with collisions, fires, and their combination, which are associated with extraordinary loads on the tank. The focus of this study is to investigate the behavior of TSI as a result of their thermal exposure to a heat source representing a fire. It is worth mentioning that this could lead to an increase of the heat flux into a tank by several orders of magnitude, and to permanent damage of the TSI, ultimately rapid release of flammable gas as well as a Boiling Liquide Expanding Vapour Explosion (BLEVE). For this purpose, a high temperature thermal vacuum chamber (HTTVC) has been developed that allows thermal loading of MLI or perlites in a vacuum and simultaneous measurement of heat flow through this TSI. The HTTVC is designed to represent realistic insulation conditions and to withstand thermal loads from typical design fires. The HTTVC was applied to investigate TSI based on MLI and vacuum. It is shown that the thermal stress caused permanent damage to the TSI, with shrinkage, phase change, pyrolysis, and condensation being significant damage mechanisms. The results are relevant for the evaluation of accident scenarios and can thus contribute to the improvement of TSI and the development of emergency measures for the protection of persons and infrastructures. T2 - ASME 2023 Pressure Vessels & Piping Conference (PVP2023) CY - Atlanta, Georgia, USA DA - 16.07.2023 KW - LH2 KW - LNG KW - MLI KW - Fire PY - 2023 SP - 1 EP - 8 PB - ASME AN - OPUS4-57973 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Eberwein, Robert A1 - Scarponi, Giordano Emrys A1 - Cozzani, Valerio A1 - Otremba, Frank T1 - Lh2 Tanks In Fire Incidents - The Cryogenic High Temperature Thermal Vacuum Chamber Enables In-Depth Insights N2 - Liquefied Hydrogen (LH2) and Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) establish themselves as important energy carriers in the transport sector. Their storage requires tanks with thermal super-insulations to keep them at cryogenic conditions for a long time. These insulation systems have proven itself in various applications over a long time. However, these insulations are still new in land transportation, where accidents involving collisions, fires, and their combination are to be expected. This study summarizes the results of the ongoing research program in which insulations commonly used in industry were analysed through experimental and numerical studies under fire-like conditions. It was found that there are strong differences among the various insulation systems. Several safety concerns and research gaps exists for layered insulations, which are typically used in land transport. To further analyse these insulation systems, a new test concept called Cryogenic High Temperature Thermal Vacuum Chamber (CHTTVC) was developed and manufactured. This concept enables the testing of large insulation samples under industrial conditions and the consideration of cryogenic conditions relevant for the investigation of various phenomena. The results are important for the evaluation of accident scenarios, the improvement of thermal super-insulations, and the development of emergency measures. T2 - IMECE 2024 CY - Oregon, Portland, USA DA - 17.11.2024 KW - LH2 KW - LNG KW - Fire KW - Insulation KW - Safety PY - 2024 SN - 978-0-7918-8869-8 SP - 1 EP - 7 PB - ASME AN - OPUS4-61751 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Camplese, Davide A1 - Scarponi, Giordano Emrys A1 - Eberwein, Robert A1 - Hajhariri, Aliasghar A1 - Otremba, Frank A1 - Cozzani, Valerio T1 - Comparative performance assessment of multilayer insulation (MLI) systems for liquid hydrogen vessels in fire scenarios N2 - Multilayer Insulation (MLI) systems are a mature technology for cryogenic liquid hydrogen (LH2) tank thermal insulation. Recent tests evidenced that MLI materials may be damaged when exposed to fire, resulting in critical safety issues in the case of accidents. Thus, an innovative approach to the performance assessment of aluminum and polyester-based MLIs for LH2 tanks in fire scenarios was developed. A specific model integrating the hightemperature degradation of MLIs and the thermodynamic modeling of the tank lading was coupled to specific key performance indicators. Results of the analysis applied to a vehicle-scale tank equipped with 80 MLI layers indicate that MLI degradation and consequent tank failure may occur in less than 20 min for external shell temperatures above 1160 K in the presence of full engulfment, regardless of insulation used. Conversely, degradation does not occur earlier than 3600s below 603 and 928 K for polyester and aluminum-based MLI, respectively. KW - LH2 KW - LNG KW - Cryogenic storage tank KW - Fire KW - Insulation PY - 2025 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-630841 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2025.04.534 SN - 0360-3199 VL - 135 SP - 537 EP - 552 PB - Elsevier Ltd. AN - OPUS4-63084 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Sanchez-Olivares, Guadalupe A1 - Brehme, Sven A1 - Calderas, F. A1 - Schartel, Bernhard T1 - Flame Retardant Polyolefins Using Fibers From Leather Waste: Adjusting Extrusion Variables to Balance the Property Profile N2 - The extrusion processing variables represent a key to the optimal use of additives and thus the development of flame-retardant polymer composites. Adjusting the property profile, for example, finding a balance between flame retardancy and mechanical properties is the main challenge. In this work, the effect of blending temperature and rotational speed on physico-mechanical properties and fire behavior of polyolefin composites was investigated. High-density polyethylene or polypropylene was used as polymer matrices; the polymers were compounded by the extrusion process using industrial-waste leather fibers as flame retardant adjuvant and commercial flame-retardant additives. A detailed rheological analysis highlighted different viscoelastic behavior, that is, a predominant elastic or viscous one. The effect of the extrusion processing variables was also investigated on the morphology, mechanical properties, thermal decomposition, fire behavior under forced flaming combustion and flammability. Important improvements were revealed with respect to using only high loading of flame retardants. For high-density polyethylene-based composites, impact resistance and elongation at break increased 8 and 7.5 times, respectively. The total heat evolved (87MJ/m2), effective heat of combustion (31.6MJ/kg), flame retardancy (UL 94 rating) results were comparable with the reference sample. Meanwhile for polypropylene composites, the impact resistance increased 2.2 times and the flame retardancy was improved from no rating in the UL 94 vertical test to V-0 rating. Tailored processing was highlighted as an autonomous and powerful approach to achieve balanced and demanding properties. KW - Biomaterials KW - Composites KW - Extrusion KW - Flame retardance KW - Leather waste KW - Polyolefins PY - 2026 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-656732 DO - https://doi.org/10.1002/vnl.70048 SN - 1548-0585 SN - 1083-5601 VL - 32 IS - 2 SP - 410 EP - 430 PB - Wiley Periodicals LLC. AN - OPUS4-65673 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Pittrich, Tim A1 - Peters, Simon A1 - Meschke, Günther A1 - Weise, Frank A1 - Stelzner, Ludwig T1 - Thermally induced moisture transport in concrete with different types of blended Portland cement studied by 1H-NMR relaxometry N2 - Clinker-reduced cements are gaining in popularity as part of efforts to lower the construction industry’s CO2 footprint. Past studies showed that utilization of these cements negatively influences the fire-induced spalling behavior of concrete, which is highly influenced by thermohydraulic damage mechanisms. Therefore, thermally induced moisture transport in normal strength concretes made with different types of blended cements (CEM I, CEM II/A-LL, CEM III/A and CEM II/B-Q) was investigated by means of 1H-NMR relaxometry in combination with supportive side investigations concerning permeability and porosity. In addition, a numerical model was used to analyze in-situ moisture development during high temperature exposure. The results show that the cement type influences both initial moisture content and pore size-specific moisture distribution. This was primarily reflected in an increased water content in CEM III/A and CEM II/B-Q concretes as well as a comparable high gel pore water fraction in CEM II/B-Q concrete before heating. After heating, a similar degree of pore coarsening from gel to capillary pore was observed in all samples. Although the measurements were only conducted after, not during, high temperature exposure, the depth of the drying front and the extent of the moisture clog could be determined. With the additional numerical analysis, it can be assumed that during high temperature load, the drying front is less advanced and the moisture clog even more pronounced. In conclusion, it can be stated that the increased spalling susceptibility in blended cement concrete is caused by the lower initial permeability and increased moisture content. KW - Fire concrete spalling KW - Thermally induced moisture transport KW - Blended cements KW - 1H-NMR PY - 2026 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-656846 DO - https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-026-03025-4 SN - 1359-5997 VL - 59 IS - 3 SP - 1 EP - 20 PB - Springer Science and Business Media LLC AN - OPUS4-65684 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Müller, Simon A1 - Hofmann-Böllinghaus, Anja A1 - Chen, Zhimin A1 - Vogel, Kristin A1 - Benner, Philipp T1 - A high-resolution spatiotemporal wildfire propagation dataset for the Mediterranean and Europe N2 - Wildfires are becoming more frequent and severe under the influence of climate change, posing increasing risks to ecosystems, human health, and infrastructure. Accurate spatiotemporal data on wildfire propagation is essential for advancing fire behavior modeling, improving management strategies, and mitigating future impacts. However, existing datasets with both high spatial and temporal resolution are rare, costly, and time-consuming to produce. To address this gap, we present FireSpread_MedEU, a dataset comprising 320 consecutive burned area maps from 103 wildfire events across the Mediterranean and Europe between 2017 and 2023. Burned areas were derived from high-resolution Planet optical satellite imagery (~3 m spatial, mostly daily temporal resolution) using a semi-automated workflow, followed by manual refinement to ensure highest accuracy. Each dataset entry is enriched with detailed metadata and a subjective quality assessment. With its high level of spatiotemporal precision, FireSpread_MedEU provides essential data for the development and validation of machine learning models or wildfire simulation models. It opens new research opportunities in wildfire behavior analysis, risk assessment, and predictive modeling. KW - Wildfire KW - Remote Sensing KW - Data PY - 2026 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-657294 DO - https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-026-06965-2 SN - 2052-4463 VL - 13 IS - 1 SP - 1 EP - 7 PB - Springer Science and Business Media LLC AN - OPUS4-65729 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Wagner, Jan A1 - Dudziak, Mateusz A1 - Falkenhagen, Jana A1 - Rockel, Daniel A1 - Reimann, H.-A A1 - Schartel, Bernhard T1 - This is the way: An evidence based route to phytic-acid–based flame retardant poly(lactide acid) N2 - A systematic sequence of materials was investigated to develop phytic-acid (Phyt)–based flame retarded poly (lactide acid) (PLA), while factoring in molecular weight (MW), crystallinity and mechanical properties. Synergistic approaches were developed based on combinations with lignin and expandable graphite (EG), as well as by applying different Phyt salts of melamine (Mel), piperazine (Pip), and arginine (Arg). Compounds were twin screw extruded, injection molded, hot pressed and investigated with thermal analysis, size exclusion chromatography, infrared spectroscopy, tensile testing, limited oxygen index (LOI), UL 94, cone calorimeter, and scanning electron microscope. 16.7 wt.% flame retardant (FR) slightly enhances crystallization while MW remains unchanged in PLA Phyt Arg and PLA Phyt Mel. LOI was improved to 43.7 vol.% for PLA Phyt Arg, UL 94 V0 achieved for PLA Phyt Pip. Cone calorimeter results show total heat evolved reduced by 14 %, maximum average rate of heat emission 43 % lower, and peak heat release rate reduced by 50 % for PLA Phyt Mel. Phyt Mel combined with EG increased the char yield of PLA to 20 wt.% and 15.5 wt.% at 600 and 900 ◦C, respectively. Phyt is exploited to enhance char yield, stabilize the intumescent char, and lower the apparent effective heat of combustion. The combination of Phyt Mel and EG was proposed as an efficient FR for PLA via an evidence based developing route. KW - Polylactide acid KW - Intumescent flame retardant KW - Phosphorous flame retardant KW - Phytic acid KW - Expandable graphite KW - Melamine PY - 2025 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-626395 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2025.111242 SN - 1873-2321 SN - 0141-3910 VL - 234 SP - 1 EP - 14 PB - Elsevier Ltd. AN - OPUS4-62639 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Dudziak, Mateusz A1 - Bhatia, Riya A1 - Dey, R. A1 - Falkenhagen, Jana A1 - Ullrich, M. S. A1 - Thomsen, C. A1 - Schartel, Bernhard T1 - Wastewater phosphorus enriched algae as a sustainable flame retardant in polylactide N2 - Revolutionizing our polymer industry for adaption to a sustainable carbon circular economy has become one of today’s most demanding challenges. Exploiting renewable resources to replace fossil-fuel—based plastics with biopolymers such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is inevitable while using waste streams as a raw material resource at least is promising. When it comes to using PLA as technical polymer, its high flammability must be addressed by flame retardants compatible with the thermoplastic processing of PLA and its compostability. This study proposes microalgae enriched with phosphorus from wastewater (P-Algae) as an elegant way towards a kind of sustainable organophosphorus flame retardant. The concept is demonstrated by investigating the processing, pyrolysis, flammability, and fire behavior of PLA/P-Algae, while varying the P-Algae content and comparing P-Algae with four alternative bio-fillers (phosphorylated lignin, biochar, thermally treated sewage sludge, and metal phytate) with different P-contents as meaningful benchmarks. KW - PLA KW - Flame Retardancy KW - Phosphorylated Algae KW - Wastewater flame retardants KW - Zink phytate KW - Phosphorylated lignin KW - Thermally treated sludge PY - 2024 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-604150 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2024.110885 SN - 1873-2321 SN - 0141-3910 VL - 227 SP - 1 EP - 11 PB - Elsevier Ltd. AN - OPUS4-60415 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER -