TY - CONF A1 - Tschirschwitz, Rico T1 - A study on thermal runaway propagation in battery cells and modules assembled of pouch cells N2 - Every technical system has a failure rate, including a lithium-ion battery. To minimize the effects in the event of a thermal runaway, it is necessary to know what consequences to expect. In the talk, current results from tests on the thermal runaway behaviour of lithium-ion batteries will be presented and conclusions drawn for the handling of those. T2 - EUSAS Conference 2023, "Addressing the fire risks of electromobility" CY - Frankfurt am Main, Germany DA - 10.05.2023 KW - Electrical Energy Storage KW - Lithium-ion battery KW - Propagation KW - Consequneces PY - 2023 AN - OPUS4-57583 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Tschirschwitz, Rico A1 - Bernardy, Christopher A1 - Wagner, Patrick A1 - Rappsilber, Tim A1 - Liebner, Christian A1 - Hahn, S.-K. A1 - Krause, U. T1 - Harmful effects of lithium-ion battery thermal runaway: scale-up tests from cell to second-life modules N2 - For a comprehensive safety assessment of stationary lithium-ion-battery applications, it is necessary to better understand the consequences of thermal runaway (TR). In this study, experimental tests comprising twelve TR experiments including four single-cell tests, two cell stack tests and six second-life module tests (2.65 kW h and 6.85 kW h) with an NMC-cathode under similar initial conditions were conducted. The temperature (direct at cells/modules and in near field), mass loss, cell/module voltage, and qualitative vent gas composition (Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and diode laser spectroscopy (DLS) for HF) were measured. The results of the tests showed that the battery TR is accompanied by severe and in some cases violent chemical reactions. In most cases, TR was not accompanied by pregassing of the modules. Jet flames up to a length of 5 m and fragment throwing to distances to more than 30 m were detected. The TR of the tested modules was accompanied by significant mass loss of up to 82%. The maximum HF concentration measured was 76 ppm, whereby the measured HF concentrations in the module tests were not necessarily higher than that in the cell stack tests. Subsequently, an explosion of the released vent gas occurred in one of the tests, resulting in the intensification of the negative consequences. According to the evaluation of the gas measurements with regard to toxicity base on the “Acute Exposure Guideline Levels” (AEGL), there is some concern with regards to CO, which may be equally as important to consider as the release of HF. KW - Large-scale tests KW - Lithium-ion battery KW - Gas emission KW - Thermal runaway KW - Consequences PY - 2023 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-579054 DO - https://doi.org/10.1039/D3RA02881J SN - 2046-2069 VL - 13 IS - 30 SP - 20761 EP - 20779 PB - Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) CY - Cambridge, UK AN - OPUS4-57905 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Amano, K. O. A. A1 - Hahn, S.-K. A1 - Butt, N. A1 - Vorwerk, P. A1 - Gimadieva, E. A1 - Tschirschwitz, Rico A1 - Rappsilber, Tim A1 - Krause, U. T1 - Composition and Explosibility of Gas Emissions from Lithium-Ion Batteries Undergoing Thermal Runaway N2 - Lithium-based batteries have the potential to undergo thermal runaway (TR), during which mixtures of gases are released. The purpose of this study was to assess the explosibility of the gaseous emission from LIBs of an NMC-based cathode during thermal runaway. In the current project, a series of pouch lithium-based battery cells was exposed to abuse conditions (thermal) to study the total amount of gases released and the composition of the gas mixture. First, the battery cells were placed in a closed vessel, and the pressure and temperature rise inside the vessel were measured. In a second step, the composition of gases was analysed using a Fourier transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometer. We found that the amount of released gases was up to 102 ± 4 L, with a clear dependence on the battery capacity. This study showed that the concentration of gaseous emissions such as carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4), ethylene (C2H4), ethane (C2H6), and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) increased with higher cell capacity. Of the five studied flammable gases, the maximum concentrations of carbon monoxide (16.85 vol%), methane (7.6 vol%), and ethylene (7.86 vol%) were identified to be within their explosible range. Applying Le Chatelier’s law, a calculated lower explosion limit (LEL) of 7% in volume fraction was obtained for the gas mixture. The upper explosion limit (UEL) of the gas mixture was also found to be 31% in volume. A filter comprising pyrobubbles was used for the removal of the studied gas components released during the thermal abuse. The investigation revealed that the pyrobubbles filter was highly effect in the removal of HCN (up to 94% removal) and CO2 (up to 100% removal). Herein, we report the dependency of the method of thermal runaway trigger on the measured maximum temperature. KW - Lithium-ion battery KW - Thermal runaway KW - Smoke gas emission KW - Gas explosion KW - Explosion limit PY - 2023 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-576477 DO - https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060300 VL - 9 IS - 6 SP - 1 EP - 19 PB - MDPI CY - Basel, Switzerland AN - OPUS4-57647 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Tschirschwitz, Rico T1 - BEV Accidents - Consequences in Case of a Battery Thermal Runaway N2 - The number of cars which use a battery for propulsion, like BEV (battery electric vehicle) or PHEV (plug-in hybrid electric vehicle), is increasing. Following, the probability of these car types being involved in car accidents will increase. In a worst-case accident scenario, the installed batteries could go under thermal runaway (TR). A TR could be initiated by various causes, e.g., high temperatures from outside, mechanical damage of the cells/modules/batteries or internal and external short circuits. During such an event, large amounts of heat and toxic and/or flammable gases are released. This poses a great hazard to people and property in the immediate vicinity. The paper describes a large-scale test series on the lithium-ion battery TR consequences of automobile cells and modules up to E = 6.85 kWh. Near field temperatures of ΔT > 800°C in a distance of l = 2 m were measured. During an overcharge test, fragment throwing distances of l > 30 m were detected. Subsequent gas explosions of the released gases were documented. Hydrogen fluoride (HF) was measured in all tests, from cell to module. The highest measured concentration was cHF = 76 ppm, which is significantly higher than the 30-min-level for AEGL 2 (acute exposure guideline level 2). Based on the experimentally determined consequences, concrete measures for the accident analysis are subsequently drawn. T2 - 31st Annual Congress of the European Association for Accident Research and Analysis (EVU) CY - Limassol, Cyprus DA - 05.10.2023 KW - Consequences KW - Electrical Energy Storage KW - Lithium-ion battery KW - BEV KW - Gas release PY - 2023 AN - OPUS4-58547 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Tschirschwitz, Rico A1 - Hahn, Sarah-K. A1 - Krause, Ulrich T1 - BEV Accidents - Consequences in Case of a Battery Thermal Runaway N2 - The number of cars which use a battery for propulsion, like BEV (battery electric vehicle) or PHEV (plug-in hybrid electric vehicle), is increasing. Following, the probability of these car types being involved in car accidents will increase. In a worst-case accident scenario, the installed batteries could go under thermal runaway (TR). A TR could be initiated by various causes, e.g., high temperatures from outside, mechanical damage of the cells/modules/batteries or internal and external short circuits. During such an event, large amounts of heat and toxic and/or flammable gases are released. This poses a great hazard to people and property in the immediate vicinity. The paper describes a large-scale test series on the lithium-ion battery TR consequences of automobile cells and modules up to E = 6.85 kWh. Near field temperatures of ΔT > 800°C in a distance of l = 2 m were measured. During an overcharge test, fragment throwing distances of l > 30 m were detected. Subsequent gas explosions of the released gases were documented. Hydrogen fluoride (HF) was measured in all tests, from cell to module. The highestmeasured concentration was cHF = 76 ppm, which is significantly higher than the 30-min-level for AEGL 2 (acute exposure guideline level 2). Based on the experimentally determined consequences, concrete measures for the accident analysis are subsequently drawn. T2 - 31st Annual Congress of the European Association for Accident Research and Analysis (EVU) CY - Limassol, Cyprus DA - 05.10.2023 KW - Gas release KW - Consequences KW - Lithium-ion battery KW - Electrical Energy Storage KW - BEV PY - 2023 SP - 1 EP - 18 AN - OPUS4-58552 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Amano, Kofi Owusu Ansah T1 - Study of thermal runaway and gas emissions in NMC lithium-ion batteries: State of Charge Dependence Investigation N2 - Thermal runaway investigations were performed by subjecting single and double NMC pouch cells to thermal abuse condition inside an air-tight reactor vessel with an internal volume of 100 dm³. The study was divided into two series. The findings revealed the thermal runaway-induced explosion in the cells results in a rate of temperature increase greater than 10 K/s. The highest gaseous production was achieved at a range of 90 – 100% SOC and higher battery capacities 0.79 L/Wh (Series 1, 10 Ah cell) and 0.87 L/Wh (Series 2, 32 Ah cell). The investigation showed between 25 m³ and 84 m³ of explosible gas mixture could be released from electric vehicles of nominal useable electrical energy from 32 kWh up to 108 kWh at thermal runaway. It was also found that, the release of these explosible gases could undergo a secondary explosion. T2 - 4th IBSW 2023 – International Battery Safety Workshop CY - Ulm, Germany DA - 28.09.2023 KW - Consequneces KW - Electrical Energy Storage KW - Propagation; Gas release KW - Lithium-ion battery PY - 2023 AN - OPUS4-58543 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Hahn, Sarah-K. A1 - Tschirschwitz, Rico A1 - Amano, Kofi Owusu Ansah A1 - Gimadieva, Elena A1 - Krause, Ulrich T1 - A Study on Thermal Runaway Propagation in Battery Modules Assembled from Pouch Cells N2 - Thermal runaway reactions were studied in arrangements from single battery cells with energy capacities of 2.5 Ah (9.25 Wh) to battery modules up to 6.85 kWh. All cells were pouch cells of the Li-ion NMC type and the modules were composed of such. Abuse was triggered either by overcharging or thermally by attaching a heat source (heating plate or glow plug) to the cells. Experiments with single cells or assemblies of two to four cells were undertaken in closed autoclaves. Samples of the gas released from the cells during the runaway were extracted and analysed using a Fourier-transformed infrared spectrometer (FTIR). In some experiments pressure peaks up to 7 bar (g) were observed which could not be explained by the gas release alone. Obviously, secondary explosions took place. Thermal runaway propagation was studied with and without an insulation layer between the battery cells. Several materials and combinations of them were tested as insulations: hollow glass spheres (Pyrobubbles®), phase change materials (PCM) and intumescent materials. Experiments showed that already layers of 10 to 20 mm of insulation effectively prevented the propagation of a thermal runaway. In addition to the experiments, a mathematical model was developed for studying numerically the heat transfer through arrangements of multiple battery cells and also the effect of insulation layers. This model was implemented into the commercial finite-element software package COMSOL Multiphysics®. The simulations confirmed the experimental findings that already quite thin insulation layers between cells or modules effectively delay or even suppress the propagation of the thermal runaway. T2 - EUSAS conference "Addressing the Fire Risks of Electromobility" CY - Frankfurt am Main, Germany DA - 10.05.2023 KW - Thermal Runaway KW - Consequences KW - Electrical Energy Storage KW - Gas release KW - Lithium-ion battery PY - 2024 UR - https://eusas.eu/publications/eusas-journals VL - 15 SP - 43 EP - 50 PB - EUSAS e.V. (European Society for Automatic Alarm Systems e.V.), Universität Duisburg-Essen, Dept. Nachrichtentechnische Systeme CY - Duisburg AN - OPUS4-61598 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Spindlegger, Anna A1 - Slotyuk, Lyubov A1 - Jandric, Aleksander A1 - De Souza, Ricardo Gabbay A1 - Prenner, Stefanie A1 - Part, Florian T1 - Environmental performance of second-life lithium-ion batteries repurposed from electric vehicles for household storage systems N2 - Repurposing lithium-ion batteries has proven to be a promising solution to address the rising number of end-of-life batteries that can be used for second-life energy storage systems and thus extend their service life. While previous research has provided valuable insights into the environmental benefits of battery repurposing, there is still a need to examine the repurposing process more thoroughly, in order to make well-informed decisions on the implementation of second-life battery storage systems. Therefore, this study examines the influence of different repurposing strategies on the environmental performance of second-life battery energy storage systems. A life cycle assessment was conducted, analysing four repurposing cases relating to the exchange of components, namely i) new battery management system and module casing (Base case), ii) new battery management system and reuse of module casing (Case 1), iii) new module casing and reuse of battery management system (Case 2) and iv) reuse of module casing and battery management system (Case 3). These impacts were compared to a storage system with new batteries, to determine the potential environmental benefits and identify the most suitable repurposing strategy. Our findings demonstrate significant environmental benefits of second-life battery energy storage systems across various impact categories and repurposing cases. The Base case and Case 1 resulted in environmental benefits across all impact categories. The highest benefits were observed for metal depletion with savings of 58 % and 61 %, respectively. Increased savings were obtained for Case 2 and Case 3. However, environmental drawbacks were identified for freshwater and marine ecotoxicity. In particular, Case 2 resulted in the highest drawbacks of -22 % and -16 %, respectively. These can be attributed to the allocation procedure, particularly affecting the recycling credits of battery management system recycling. The full allocation of end-of-life impacts and consequently the recycling credits to the second-life battery has not only led to a substantial increase in overall savings, but also resulted in impact categories that originally had disadvantages becoming those with the highest environmental savings. This study demonstrates the importance of carefully selecting repurposing strategies for second-life energy storage systems to maximize their environmental benefits and avoid drawbacks. Additionally, the results highlight the substantial influence of allocation procedures on overall environmental impacts, underscoring the need for clearer methodological guidance on addressing the multifunctionality of repurposed batteries. KW - Life cycle assessment KW - Repurposing KW - Second-life battery KW - Lithium-ion battery KW - Battery energy storage system KW - Circular economy PY - 2025 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2025.01.003 SN - 2352-5509 VL - 54 SP - 227 EP - 240 PB - Elsevier CY - Amsterdam AN - OPUS4-62940 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Abad Andrade, Carlos Enrique T1 - Improvement of manufacturing processes of Li-ion batteries by Glow Discharge Optical Emission Spectroscopy N2 - Manufacturing lithium-ion coin cells (LIBs) for scientific research demands reproducibility, precision, and thorough metrology to ensure consistent quality and performance. Glow-discharge optical emission spectroscopy (GD-OES) emerges as a crucial analytical technique in this context, providing detailed insights into elemental composition and material homogeneity [1,2]. This study focuses on using GD-OES to optimize and standardize the manufacturing processes of LIBs, emphasizing metrology and traceability to develop reproducible and high-quality batteries for research purposes. We refined cell production by adjusting key parameters such as cathode doping, electrolyte concentration, and calendar pressing. GD-OES facilitated depth analysis of elemental composition and distribution, which is essential for identifying and maintaining optimal manufacturing conditions. Validation was achieved through electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), ensuring the quality and consistency of the manufactured batteries. GD-OES analysis revealed critical insights into elemental uniformity and impurities, guiding adjustments significantly improving cell performance and reproducibility. The method proved fast and effective in detecting and correcting variations in the manufacturing process, leading to enhanced battery quality. To understand the aging mechanisms, GD-OES was employed for fluorine depth profiling, which is crucial for studying polymer and electrolyte degradation. We significantly enhanced fluorine detection sensitivity by substituting the argon plasma with a neon/argon mixture, providing a more accurate aging analysis. By demonstrating the versatility and efficacy of GD-OES in optimizing LIB manufacturing processes and gaining deeper insights into aging mechanisms, this research has significant practical implications. It not only advances lab research but also offers tangible industrial benefits, including improved battery quality, extended lifespan, and enhanced performance. By ensuring metrology and traceability, GD-OES contributes to developing a robust method for the reproducible manufacturing of Li-ion coin cells, boosting innovation and sustainability in battery technology. T2 - SciX 2025 CY - Covington, KY, USA DA - 05.10.2025 KW - GD-OES KW - Battery analysis KW - Depth profile KW - Lithium-ion battery PY - 2025 AN - OPUS4-64878 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Leonhardt, Robert A1 - Böttcher, Nils A1 - Dayani, Shahabeddin A1 - Rieck, Arielle A1 - Markötter, Henning A1 - Schmidt, Anita A1 - Kowal, Julia A1 - Tichter, Tim A1 - Krug von Nidda, Jonas T1 - Exploring the electrochemical and physical stability of lithium-ion cells exposed to liquid nitrogen N2 - The transport and storage of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries — damaged or in an undefined state — is a major safety concern for regulatory institutions, transportation companies, and manufacturers. Since (electro)chemical reactivity is exponentially temperature-dependent, cooling such batteries is an obvious measure for increasing their safety. The present study explores the effect of cryogenic freezing on the electrochemical and physical stability of Li-ion cells. For this purpose, three different types of cells were repeatedly exposed to liquid nitrogen (LN2). Before and after each cooling cycle, electrical and electrochemical measurements were conducted to assess the impact of the individual freezing steps. While the electrochemical behavior of the cells did not change significantly upon exposure to LN2 , it became apparent that a non-negligible number of cells suffered from physical changes (swelling) and functional failures. The latter defect was found to be caused by the current interrupt device of the cylindrical cells. This safety mechanism is triggered by the overpressure of expanding nitrogen which enters the cells at cryogenic temperatures. This study underlines that the widely accepted reversibility of LN2 -cooling on a material scale does not allow for a direct extrapolation toward the physical integrity of full cells. Since nitrogen enters the cell at cryogenic temperatures and expands upon rethermalization, it can cause an internal overpressure. This can, in turn, lead to mechanical damage to the cell. Consequently, a more appropriate temperature condition — less extreme than direct LN2 exposure — needs to be found KW - Lithium-ion battery KW - LN2 cooling KW - Battery characterization PY - 2024 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-599248 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2024.111650 VL - 89 SP - 1 EP - 7 PB - Elsevier B.V. AN - OPUS4-59924 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Böttcher, Nils A1 - Dayani, Shahabeddin A1 - Markötter, Henning A1 - Schmidt, Anita A1 - Kowal, J. A1 - Lu, Y. A1 - Krug von Nidda, Jonas A1 - Bruno, Giovanni T1 - Visualization of stepwise electrode decomposition in a nail penetrated commercial lithium-ion cell using low-temperature synchrotron X-ray computed tomography N2 - The transition towards zero carbon emissions in power generation hinges on the integration of efficient electrical energy storage systems, with lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) positioned as a pivotal technology. While generally safe, deviations in their operational guidelines due to manufacturing defects or misuse can lead to critical safety concerns, notably thermal runaway (TR) events. Internal short circuits (ISCs) are primary initiators of TR within LIBs. For abuse testing, ISCs are often triggered by nail penetration. This study explores the morphological changes and mechanisms underlying ISC-induced TR in LIBs using operando synchrotron X-ray computed tomography (SXCT) at subzero temperatures. A novel cryogenic setup was developed to control a stepwise temperature increase in the damaged sample while monitoring electrochemical characteristics and simultaneously enabling acquisition of high-resolution SXCT images. The findings reveal that conducting nail penetration at minus 80°C prevents immediate TR, enabling detailed analysis of subsequent structural and electrochemical behavior during controlled thawing. Thus, the initiation of TR processes at localized ISC sites has been observed, evidenced by voltage fluctuations and morphological changes, such as cathode material cracking and decomposition. These results underscore the importance of temperature control in mitigating TR risks and provide critical insights into the internal dynamics of LIBs under abusive conditions. The developed cryogenic SXCT methodology offers a powerful tool for non-destructive, high-resolution investigation of battery failure mechanisms, contributing to the enhancement of LIB safety. KW - Tomography KW - X-ray imaging KW - Lithium-ion battery PY - 2024 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-611327 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2024.235472 VL - 623 SP - 1 EP - 10 PB - Elsevier CY - New York, NY AN - OPUS4-61132 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Rappsilber, Tim A1 - Yusfi, Nawar A1 - Krüger, Simone A1 - Hahn, S.-K. A1 - Fellinger, Tim-Patrick A1 - Krug von Nidda, Jonas A1 - Tschirschwitz, Rico T1 - Meta-analysis of heat release and smoke gas emission during thermal runaway of lithium-ion batteries N2 - Herein a meta-analysis of 76 experimental research papers from 2000 to 2021 is given about possible effects on the thermal runaway of lithium-ion battery cells. Data on the hazards of gas emissions and released heat are related to each other and differentiated by cell properties such as, cell geometry, cathode type or state of charge. Quantitative information on the total heat release in the range of 2.0–112.0 kJ Wh−1, the peak heat release rate in the range of 0.006–2.8 kW Wh−1and the smoke gas emission were extracted, normalized in terms of cell energy (Wh), combined in a data library and compared graphically. The total amount of gas emitted (3–48 mmol Wh−1) as well as the released amount of carbon monoxide (1–161 mg Wh−1) and hydrogen fluoride (2–197 mg Wh−1) were investigated as a function of the state of charge and cell geometry. The analysis reveals that the measured values are significantly influenced by the types of calorimeters and smoke gas analyzers used as well as by the type of thermal runaway trigger. This meta-analysis can serve as an important basis for any risk assessment of lithium-ion batteries. KW - Lithium-ion battery KW - Thermal runaway KW - Cathode active material KW - Heat release KW - Smoke gas emission PY - 2023 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-568071 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.106579 SN - 2352-152X VL - 60 SP - 1 EP - 15 PB - Elsevier CY - Amsterdam AN - OPUS4-56807 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER -