TY - CONF A1 - Becker, Amadeus T1 - Adequate repair concepts for high-strength steel weld joints for offshore support structures considering design influences N2 - The sustainable and resource-efficient production of wind energy plants requires the use of modern high-strength fine-grain structural steels. This applies to both foundation and erection structures. During the assembly of steel structures, unacceptable defects can occasionally be found in the weld area. In most cases, the economical solution would be local thermal gouging of the affected areas and re-welding. Due to the high shrinkage restraint of the joint groove in the overall structure, the superposition of global and local welding-induced stresses may lead to crack formation and component failure, particularly in interaction with the degradation of the microstructure and mechanical properties of high-strength steels during the repair process [1]. Corresponding standards hardly provide any information on adequate repair concepts, and there is no uniform scientific data on which to base such concepts. In this study, several relevant findings are discussed based on examples of structural engineering focusing on mechanical-technological properties and residual stresses, e.g. [1]. Further experimental and numerical work as conducted by [2] and weld tests under defined restraint conditions in special weld test-setups [3] show that an optimization of the welding-induced stresses of high-strength structural steels is achievable by means of an adapted heat control. The present research involves systematic investigations of influences of shrinkage restraint, the number of repair cycles and heat control during repair welding of a recently available high-strength offshore steel S500MLO (EN 10225-1). A quantification of the shrinkage restraint of repair weld joints is achievable by means of restraint intensity concept [4], analogous to previous studies [5]. Using structural mechanics calculations, geometries of self-restrained specimens are identified representing different defined rigidity conditions of repair welds considering actual high-strength steel components. Welding experiments with DIC analyses (digital image correlation) of the occurring strains during welding and XRD analyses (X-ray diffraction) of the resulting residual stresses after welding and cooling show increasing transient loads and significantly elevated residual stress profiles in the weld area with increasing restraint intensity. Especially in the heat affected zone, tensile residual stresses of up to 80 % of the nominal yield strength occur when welding under increased restraint conditions. In relation to the presented existing results, this indicates that a safe repair welding is primarily achievable by means of appropriate repair concepts and heat control taking into account the high welding stresses and special microstructures of high-strength steels. Finally, the aim of this research is to derive recommendations for repair concepts appropriate to the stresses and materials involved providing a basis for standards and guidelines, especially for SMEs, in order to avoid damage and, in most cases, expensive reworking and to improve the full utilization of the potential of high-strength steels. T2 - 74th IIW Annual Assembly and International Conference, C II-A CY - Online meeting DA - 07.07.2021 KW - High-strength structural steels KW - Welding KW - Repair KW - Residual stresses KW - Restraint PY - 2021 AN - OPUS4-53320 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Hübner, Martin A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas A1 - Dittmann, Florian A1 - Varfolomeev, Igor T1 - Effect of weld design on fatigue strength of welded components using LTT filler materials N2 - Low transformation temperature (LTT) filler metals are an innovative approach to reduce tensile residual stress in weld seams and the surrounding heat affected zone (HAZ). The reduced tensile stress leads to an improvement in the fatigue strength of welded components. LTT filler metals are characterized by a reduced martensite start temperature (Ms), which is close to room temperature because of their chemical composition. This paper focuses on the hybrid use of LTT filler metals, where the LTT filler is applied as an additional layer to conventional welds on fatigue-critical spots. Conventional gas metal arc welded longitudinal stiffeners are used as specimens and at the face ends of the stiffeners, a second LTT layer was added with various weld modifications. These modifications were achieved by changing the welding parameters such as welding speed and offset to the first layer. These samples were used to analyze shape, dilution and resulting Ms, residual stress and fatigue strength. The dilution and dilatometer verified Ms did not change significant, although the surface of the 2nd LTT weld seam was varying clear with each modification. However, the weld modification had a significant effect on the residual stress state and the fatigue strength. The X-ray determined residual stress in the HAZ became lower when the weld toe of the LTT layer was further away from the stiffener. The Fatigue strength is clearly dependent on the residual stress state. The lower the residual stress at weld toe, the higher the fatigue strength. All samples with LTT weld exhibit significantly higher fatigue strength values than conventionally single and double-layer welded samples. The results show that on the one hand LTT filler metals increase the fatigue strength, and on the other hand the impact of LTT fillers materials is not restricted to the dilution and Ms, the shape of the weld seam must also be considered. T2 - IIW Intermediate Meeting CII CY - Trollhättan, Sweden DA - 10.03.2025 KW - LTT (Low Transformation Temperature) KW - Residual stress reduction KW - Fatigue strength KW - High-strength steels KW - Welding PY - 2025 AN - OPUS4-62708 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Rhode, Michael A1 - Mente, Tobias A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas A1 - Schaupp, Thomas A1 - Zavdoveev, Anatoly T1 - Challenges for testing hydrogen-assisted cold cracking in weld seams of high-strength steel grades N2 - Hydrogen can cause weld cold cracking even days after fabrication. In this respect, higher strength steels present a challenge to established cold crack testing. In general, the tolerable hydrogen concentration for crack prevention decreases with increasing material strength. In addition, advanced welding processes require changes in weld geometry and heat input. This directly influences the formation of crack-critical microstructures, e.g. in hardened areas of the heat-affected zone. The limits of use and application of modern cold cracking tests are evaluated by (1) the externally loaded Implant-test and (2) the self-restraint Tekken-test. In particular, external mechanical stresses, which cause additional mechanical loads on the components during welding, must be considered due to the component-specific stiffness of high-strength steels. Accompanying test methods for determining hydrogen concentration and diffusion in welds are presented, such as carrier gas hot extraction for determining hydrogen concentration (ISO 3690) or temperature-dependent diffusion coefficients. These values are of great importance for a holistic approach to the evaluation of the cold cracking sensitivity of high strength steels. KW - Hydrogen KW - Welding KW - Cold cracking test KW - High-strength steel PY - 2024 DO - https://doi.org/10.37434/tpwj2024.08.01 SN - 0957-798X VL - 2024 IS - 8 SP - 3 EP - 9 PB - International Association "Welding" CY - Kyiv, Ukraine AN - OPUS4-60946 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kaiser, Sebastian T1 - Evaluation of welding on in-service pressurized hydrogen pipelines by component testing N2 - Hydrogen transportation is fundamentally different from natural gas (NG) as it can be absorbed into the pipeline material. However, pipelines require frequent maintenance or repair, in some cases on or onto the pipelines while they are still under pressure. This in-service welding causes challenges for hydrogen operations. They can be roughly divided into: (1) possible austenitization of the inner pipe material exposed to hydrogen, and (2) welding itself with its temperature cycles. Both lead to a significant increase in hydrogen solubility/diffusivity of the materials. Fundamental investigations are required due to the missing service experience. The present study introduces a specially designed demonstrator concept for the assessment of the welding processing conditions. The mock-up was designed to enable temperature measurement during welding as well as ex-post extraction of samples for the quantification of the absorbed hydrogen. The necessary pressurized hydrogen volume was limited by the insertion of a solid cylinder. Welding experiments on the pressurized mock-ups (DN50 and DN200) have shown that the austenitization temperature is nearly reached on the inner surface of the pipeline. This corresponds to a significant hydrogen absorption of several ppm in the welded joint, especially for thin-walled pipelines. Nonetheless, a potential hydrogen assisted cracking was not identified. T2 - 24. Werkstofftechnisches Kolloquium CY - Chemnitz, Germany DA - 02.04.2025 KW - Pipeline KW - In-Service KW - Welding KW - Hydrogen PY - 2025 AN - OPUS4-62917 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kaiser, Sebastian A1 - Erxleben, Kjell A1 - Rhode, Michael A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas T1 - Repair Welding of In-Service Hydrogen Pipelines - Concepts and Challenges N2 - Hydrogen is set as the energy carrier of tomorrow for a more sustainable fossil fuel free future. As this necessitates a reliable transport infrastructure, repurposing of the existing natural gas grid is planned. With regards to the well-known effect of hydrogen embrittlement, the compatibility of utilized materials must be investigated. First comprehensive studies on pipeline material hydrogen compatibility indicate that these materials can be applied to a certain extent. Nonetheless, the material compatibility is currently of high interest and focus of numerous research projects worldwide. However, pipelines require frequent maintenance and repair work. As part of these, in some cases it is necessary to do weldments onto pipelines while they are pressurized. This in-service welding introduces additional challenges for the material compatibility. Due to the resulting high temperatures, the metallurgical changes in the material and of course the presence of high-pressure hydrogen in the pipeline, additional investigations need to be conducted to ensure that no critical material degradation because of increased hydrogen absorption occurs and an overall material compatibility is given. For this reason, the present paper introduces in-service welding on pipelines. An overview of current research projects that deal with the application of in-service welding specifically on hydrogen pipelines and the emerging problems when applying these techniques on hydrogen pipelines is given. Methods of material testing, their limits and possible solutions are presented and discussed. T2 - 2024 15th International Pipeline Conference CY - Calgary, Alberta, Canada DA - 23.09.2024 KW - Hydrogen KW - Pipeline KW - Welding KW - In-Service PY - 2024 SN - 978-0-7918-8856-8 DO - https://doi.org/10.1115/IPC2024-133052 SP - 1 EP - 6 PB - The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) CY - New York AN - OPUS4-62262 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kromm, Arne T1 - Phase Transformation and Strain Evolution during Welding of Low Transformation Temperature Alloys N2 - In this work, the phase and strain formation in multipass welding of LTT gas metal arc welds were observed under realistic restraints by means of time resolved angular-dispersive synchrotron X-ray diffraction at the High Energy Materials Science beamline HEMS at PETRA III (DESY), Hamburg Germany. It was shown that the strain evolution during cooling correlates with the amount of martensite formed. Both, the strain of martensite and austenite are affected during phase transformation. Even though dilution processes limit the LTT effect in the root compared to the top layer, the strains are significantly reduced compared to the conventional weld metal. The observed effects are found for both Ni and Mn based LTT filler metals regardless of their respective Ms temperature. T2 - 2nd International Conference on Advanced Joining Processes AJP 2021 CY - Sintra, Portugal DA - 21.10.2021 KW - Welding KW - Residual Stress KW - In-situ diffraction KW - Synchrotron PY - 2021 AN - OPUS4-53609 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Richter, Tim T1 - Local mechanical properties of TIG dissimilar metal welded high entropy alloy with austenitic steel AISI 304 N2 - High entropy alloys (HEA) are a new class of materials that have been investigated since the early 2000s and offer great potential to replace conventional alloys. However, since they sometimes have significant contents of expensive alloying elements such as Co or Ni, their use is only conceivable in highly stressed areas of components. For this purpose, the weldability with conventional alloys such as high-alloy austenitic steels must be investigated. In addition to the resulting microstructure, the mechanical properties are also fundamental for the usability of HEAs in DMWs. For this purpose, TIG welds of CoCrFeMnNi HEA (cold rolled and recrystallized state) with AISI 304 austenitic steel are investigated. These mechanical properties are analyzed in this work by means of tensile tests and local hardness measurement. The local strain behavior of the welded joints is also characterized by means of Digital Image Correlation (DIC). The results of the local hardness measurement show a clear influence of the initial condition of the HEA on the HAZ. Thus, the HEA in the cold-rolled condition shows a clear softening because of recrystallization processes in the HAZ. On the other hand, there is no influence on the hardness of the weld metal, which is approx. 200 HV0.1 in both cases. The tensile tests show a consistent failure of the weld in the weld metal. However, regardless of the HEA condition, strengths in the range of the recrystallized HEA (RM ~ 550–600 MPa) are achieved, although with significantly reduced fracture elongations. T2 - IIW Intermediate Meeting of Commission II-A CY - Garching, Germany DA - 06.03.2023 KW - High-entropy alloy KW - Welding KW - Dissimilar metal weld (DMW) joint KW - Mechanical properties KW - Digital image correlation PY - 2023 AN - OPUS4-57108 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Schröpfer, Dirk A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Lausch, Thomas A1 - Rhode, Michael A1 - Wimpory, R. C. A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas T1 - Influence of welding stresses on relief cracking during heat treatment of a creep-resistant 13CrMoV steel: Part III - Assessment of residual stresses from small-scale to real component welds N2 - For higher operational temperatures and pressures required in petrochemical plants, the modified 13CrMoV9-10 steel was developed providing high resistance against creep and compressed hydrogen. Extreme care during the welding procedure is necessary for this steel, attributed to low toughness, high strength in as-welded state, and increased susceptibility to stress relief cracking (SRC) during post-weld heat treatment (PWHT). Previous research of SRC in creep-resistant steels discussed mainly thermal and metallurgical factors. Few previous findings addressed the influences of welding procedure on crack formation during PWHT considering real-life manufacturing conditions. These investigations focus on effects of welding heat control on stresses during welding and subsequent PWHT operations close to realistic restraint and heat dissipation conditions using a special 3D testing facility, which was presented in parts I and II of this contribution. Part III addresses investigations on residual stress evolution affecting crack formation and discusses the transferability of results from large-scale testing to laboratory-scale. Experiments with test set-ups at different scales under diverse rigidity conditions and an assessment of the residual stresses of the weld-specimens using X-ray (surface near) and neutron diffraction analysis (bulk) were performed. This study aims to provide a way of investigating the SRC behaviour considering component-specific residual stresses via small-scale testing concepts instead of expensive weld mock-ups. KW - Welding KW - Creep-resistant steel KW - Residual stresses KW - Post-weld heat treatment KW - Stress relief cracking PY - 2021 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-524403 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-021-01101-7 SN - 1878-6669 VL - 65 SP - 1671 EP - 1685 PB - Springer CY - Berlin AN - OPUS4-52440 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Thomas, Maximilian A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas A1 - Gibmeier, J. A1 - Vollert, F. T1 - Assessment of the Solidification Cracking Susceptibility of Welding Consumables in the Varestraint Test by Means of an Extended Evaluation Methodology N2 - Various test methods are available for assessing the susceptibility of materials to solidification cracking during welding. In the widely used Varestraint test, the crack length is selected as a criterion as a function of the applied bending strain. Unfortunately, the crack length does not characterize the material behavior alone but depends to varying degrees on the individual test parameters used, which makes the interpretation of the results difficult. In addition, the crack length is not comparable under different test conditions. To overcome these disadvantages, we have developed a novel evaluation methodology that decouples the machine influence from the material behavior. The measured crack length is related to the maximum possible value specified by welding speed and deformation time. This relative crack length is calculated numerically, considering the orientation of the cracks. Experiments on two high-alloy martensitic welding consumables show that, in contrast to the conventional evaluation, a comparison of different welding parameters becomes possible. Furthermore, the strain rate proved to be a suitable crack criterion in agreement with Prokhorov's hot cracking model. KW - Welding KW - Solidification cracking KW - Varestraint test PY - 2022 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-545780 DO - https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.202101650 SN - 1438-1656 SP - 2101650 PB - Wiley online library AN - OPUS4-54578 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - THES A1 - Thomas, Maximilian T1 - Verbesserung der Übertragbarkeit von Erstarrungsrissprüfungen nach dem MVT-Verfahren durch Digitalisierung der Probenauswertung N2 - Zur Prüfung der Erstarrungsrissanfälligkeit von Werkstoffen existiert eine Vielzahl von Prüfverfahren, die jedoch oft nur in ihren Grundzügen standardisiert sind. Ein Beispiel ist der an der Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung entwickelte und angewendete Modifizierte Varestraint-/Transvarestraint-Test (MVT), der eine von vielen Umsetzungen des Varestraint-Verfahrensprinzips darstellt. Hierbei werden durch Biegung während des Schweißens gezielt Erstarrungsrisse erzeugt und anschließend lichtmikroskopisch vermessen. Die Ergebnisse von Varestraint-Prüfungen charakterisieren jedoch nicht allein das Werkstoffverhalten, sondern sind in hohem Maße von der Konstruktion der jeweiligen Prüfmaschine sowie den verwendeten Prüfparametern abhängig. Dies erschwert die Vergleichbarkeit von Ergebnissen, welche nicht unter exakt identischen Bedingungen ermittelt wurden, und kann darüber hinaus zu einer ungenauen oder unvollständigen Bewertung des Werkstoffverhaltens führen. Die vorliegende Arbeit widmet sich zunächst der detaillierten Ausgestaltung der geometrischen Zusammenhänge rund um die Ausbreitung von Erstarrungsrissen während der Varestraint-Prüfung. Mit Blick auf Prokhorovs Technological Strength Theory und die sich daraus ergebenden erstarrungsrisskritischen Temperaturen wird anschließend eruiert, wie aus den Anfangs- und Endkoordinaten der entstandenen Risse auf das charakteristische Erstarrungsrissverhalten geschlossen werden kann. Die daraus entwickelte Bewertung der Rissanfälligkeit ist weitestgehend von den Prüfparametern und weiteren verfahrensspezifischen Einflüssen entkoppelt, wodurch eine deutlich bessere Übertragbarkeit der Ergebnisse gewährleistet ist. Zur Erprobung der neu entwickelten Bewertungsansätze wurden zunächst MVT-Prüfungen an mehreren hochlegierten, martensitischen Schweißzusatzwerkstoffen, sowie am Nickelbasiswerkstoff Alloy 602 CA durchgeführt. So konnten einerseits verschiedene Legierungen hinsichtlich ihres Erstarrungsrissverhaltens charakterisiert und Empfehlungen für die schweißtechnische Fertigung generiert werden. Zum anderen dienten die Proben zur vollständigen Konzipierung, Entwicklung und Validierung einer digitalen Auswertemethodik. Die eigens programmierte Software ermöglicht die schnelle und praxisgerechte Auswertung von MVT-Proben, und implementiert dabei zusätzlich die zuvor entwickelten, prozessunabhängigen Bewertungsansätze. Als Ergebnis konnten kritische Dehnraten identifiziert werden,ab deren Überschreitung die betrachteten Werkstoffe unter den verwendeten Prüfbedingungen gesteigerte Erstarrungsrissanfälligkeiten aufweisen. So ergibt sich ein direkter Zusammenhang zwischen MVT-Prüfergebnissen und der Technological Strength Theory von Prokhorov. Die Bewertung des Werkstoffverhaltens anhand der kritischen Dehnraten erwies sich gegenüber den üblicherweise betrachteten Gesamtrisslängen als deutlich zuverlässiger. Zusammenfassend konnte gezeigt werden, dass die digitale Auswertung eine sinnvolle Verbesserung der analogen Standardauswertung darstellt. N2 - A multitude of testing procedures exist for the assessment of the solidification cracking susceptibilities of metal alloys. Many of these tests are only standardised on a very basic level. This also applies to the Modified Varestraint-/Transvarestraint Test (MVT), which was developed at the Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM) and is one of many variants of the original Varestraint test. Its functional principle is the bending of flat specimens during welding. Any solidification cracks formed during the procedure are quantified in a later step using optical light microscopy. However, the test results don’t exclusively characterise the analysed material, but also greatly depend on the design of the testing rig, as well as the applied testing parameters. This complicates the comparison of results obtained under different circumstances, and furthermore can lead to an inaccurate or insufficient assessment of the material characteristics. The present work elaborates the geometrical aspects of solidification crack initiation and propagation during Varestraint testing. Applying Prokhorov’s Technological Strength Theory and the ensuing Brittleness Temperature Range, it is then determined how the start and end points of solidification cracks can be used to characterise the materials solidification cracking susceptibility. Ultimately, these insights are developed into a standard of evaluation which aims to eliminate the influence of testing parameters and characteristics, helping to greatly improve the comparability of Varestraint testing results. To test the newly developed standard of evaluation, MVT tests were carried out on several high-alloyed martensitic steels, as well as on the nickel-based Alloy 602 CA. On the one hand, the obtained results provide detailed characterisations of the solidification cracking susceptibilities of different materials as well as guidelines for their use in welding processes. On the other hand, the specimens were used for conception and validation of a novel, digital examination procedure. The software developed for this purpose allows for fast and practice-oriented examination of MVT specimens. At the same time, the new software implements the previously developed standard of evaluation to eliminate the influence of testing parameters. As a result, critical strain rates could be identified, which indicate the transition towards increased solidification cracking susceptibility under the respective circumstances. In this way, a direct connection between MVT test results and Prokhorov’s Technological Strength Theory can be drawn. Compared to the Total Crack Length, which is usually given as a test result, critical strain rates were found to be a more reliable characteristic. In summary, the newly developed procedures were proven to be a meaningful improvement of the current, analogue standard procedure. T3 - BAM Dissertationsreihe - 171 KW - Heißriss KW - Erstarrungsriss KW - Schweißen KW - Varestraint Test KW - Digitalisierung KW - Hot crack KW - Solidification KW - Welding KW - Varestraint test KW - digitalisation PY - 2022 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-553800 SN - 1613-4249 VL - 171 SP - 1 EP - 160 PB - Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) CY - Berlin AN - OPUS4-55380 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Taparli, Ugur Alp A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas A1 - Cieslik, K. A1 - Mory, D. A1 - Griesche, Axel T1 - In situ chemical composition analysis of a tungsten-inert-gas austenitic stainless steel weld measured by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy N2 - The chemical composition of a weld metal determines the resulting solidification mode of stainless steel and the consequent weld metal quality. In this work tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding of EN grade 1.4435 austenitic stainless steel was monitored using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) for the in situ measurement of chemical composition changes. This research aims to prototype a real-time chemical composition analysis system for welding applications and prove the feasibility of such quality control loop. LIBS was used to investigate in situ the monitoring of metal vaporization during TIG welding. We found Mn vapor formation above the weld pool and subsequent condensation of Mn on the weld metal surface using LIBS. Post-weld line scans were conducted by LIBS on various welds produced with different welding currents. Local changes of Ni and Mn were observed at higher welding currents. The results are in good agreement with the literature and proved that LIBS can be used in situ to inspect the TIG welding process. T2 - 10th Euro-Mediterranean Symposium on Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy CY - Brünn, Czechia DA - 08.09.2019 KW - LIBS KW - Welding KW - Austenitic stainless steel KW - Metal vapor KW - In situ measurement PY - 2020 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sab.2020.105826 SN - 0584-8547 VL - 167 SP - 105826 PB - Elsevier B.V. CY - Amsterdam, Niederlande AN - OPUS4-50582 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Rhode, Michael A1 - Mente, Tobias A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas T1 - Parameters and challenges for reliable hydrogen determination in welded joints by carrier gas hot extraction N2 - For the hydrogen-based energy economy of tomorrow, the construction of the necessary infrastructure will play a central role. Most materials used to date, such as welded steels, can be prone to hydrogen embrittlement under certain conditions. This includes the classic delayed cold cracking during welding as well as degradation phenomena during service of components in hydrogen-containing environment. For the evaluation of any hydrogen effect, for example, on the mechanical properties of a welded metallic material, the hydrogen content must be precisely determined. In the case of weld seams, the carrier gas hot extraction (CGHE) according to ISO 3690 is meanwhile state-of-the-art. CGHE is based on accelerated hydrogen degassing due to the thermal activation of hydrogen at elevated temperatures. In addition to the quantification of hydrogen, thermal desorption analysis (TDA) with varying heating rates can be used to determine and evaluate the hydrogen trapping at microstructural defects in the material. For both techniques, experimental and metrological influences must be considered, which have a major effect on the result. For example, ISO 3690 suggests different sample geometries and minimum extraction times for CGHE. This study summarizes the results and experiences of numerous investigations at the Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM) with different sample temperatures and geometries (ISO 3690 type B and cylindrical TDA samples) regarding the influence of the sample surface (polished/welded), measurement accuracy depending on the sample volume and the insufficient monitoring of the effect of PI control on the extraction temperature. A deviating extraction temperature from the target temperature can significantly falsify the measurement results. Based on the results, methods are shown which allow the desired extraction temperature to be reached quickly without physically interfering with the measuring equipment. This serves to significantly improve the reliability of the hydrogen measurement through increased signal stability and accelerated hydrogen desorption. In general, an independent temperature measurement with dummy samples is recommended for the heating procedure of choice to exclude possible undesired temperature influences before the measurement. The methods described can be transferred directly to industrial applications KW - Welding KW - Hydrogen measurement KW - ISO 3690 KW - Carrier gas hot extraction PY - 2024 DO - https://doi.org/10.37434/tpwj2024.04.01 SN - 0957-798X VL - 4 SP - 3 EP - 10 PB - International Association Welding AN - OPUS4-60071 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Schaupp, Thomas A1 - Ernst, W. A1 - Spindler, H. A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas T1 - Hydrogen-assisted cracking of GMA welded 960 MPa grade high-strength steels N2 - High-strength steels with yield strength of 960 MPa are susceptible to hydrogen-assisted cracking (HAC) during welding processing. In the present paper, the implant test is used to study HAC in a quenched and tempered steel S960QL and a high-strength steel produced by thermo-mechanical controlled process S960MC. Welding is performed using the gas metal arc welding process. Furthermore, diffusible hydrogen concentration (HD) in arc weld metal is determined. Based on the implant test results, lower critical stress (LCS) for complete fracture, critical implant stress for crack initiation, and embrittlement index (EI) are determined. At HD of 1.66 ml/100 g, LCS is 605 MPa and 817 MPa for S960QL and S960MC, respectively. EI is 0.30 and 0.46 for S960QL and S960MC, respectively. Fracture surfaces of S960QL show higher degradation with reduced deformation. Both, higher EI of S960MC and fractography show better resistance to HAC in the HAZ of S960MC compared to S960QL. KW - High-strength steel KW - Welding KW - Diffusible hydrogen KW - Hydrogen-assisted cracking KW - Heat-affected zone KW - Implant test PY - 2020 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-510307 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.05.077 SN - 0360-3199 VL - 45 IS - 38 SP - 20080 EP - 20093 PB - Elsevier Ltd CY - Amsterdam, NL AN - OPUS4-51030 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Lausch, Thomas A1 - Schröpfer, Dirk A1 - Rhode, Michael A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas T1 - Influence of welding stresses on relief cracking during heat treatment of a creep-resistant 13CrMoV steel: Part II - Mechanisms of stress relief cracking during post weld heat treatment N2 - Welding of 13CrMoV9-10 vanadium steel requires care due to an increased susceptibility to stress relief cracking during post weld heat treatment. Previous research into the crack formation in creep-resistant steels has focused on thermal and metallurgical factors; however, little knowledge has been gathered regarding the crack formation during post weld heat treatment considering real-life restraint conditions. This work is subdivided in two parts. Part I showed that an increasing heat input during submerged arc welding under restraint led to an increasing stress level in the joint prior to the post weld heat treatment. The magnitude of stress relief cracking observed in the heat-affected zone after the post weld heat treatment is affected by the heat input. In Part II of this work, the cracks and the associated microstructure which occurred under restraint were studied. The application of a Special acoustic emission analysis indicated that the cracks formed in a temperature range between 300 and 500 °C during the post weld heat treatment. The toughness in the heat-affected zone of the restrained welds was affected by the welding heat input. Microstructural analyses of all specimens revealed accelerated aging due to precipitation of carbides during post weld heat treatment under restraint. KW - Welding KW - Creep-resistant steel KW - Post weld heat treatment KW - Stress relief cracking PY - 2020 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-506283 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-020-00881-8 SN - 1878-6669 VL - 64 SP - 819 EP - 829 PB - Springer CY - Berlin AN - OPUS4-50628 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Lausch, Thomas A1 - Schröpfer, Dirk A1 - Rhode, Michael A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas T1 - Influence of welding stresses on relief cracking during heat treatment of a creep-resistant 13CrMoV steel: Part I - Effect of heat control on welding stresses and stress relief cracking N2 - The avoidance of failures during the fabrication or operation of petrochemical reactors made of creep-resistant, low-alloy steels as 13CrMoV9-10 requires still research despite over 60 years of international investigations in the field of stress relief cracking. The quality of modern base materials and filler metals leads to the fact that previously known crack causes, such as impurities of S or P, recede into the background. Rather, the causes are increasingly to be found in the fabrication process. Investigations on the influence of heat control on the stresses in welded components and thus on the stress relief cracking sensitivity under realistic manufacturing conditions are not yet available. This work is subdivided in two parts. Part 1 of this study focused on the effect of heat control during submerged arc welding on the stresses. For this purpose, a testing facility was applied, which allows to observe the forces and moments accumulating during welding or heat treatment in a component-like specimen under shrinkage restraint. The stress acting in the specimen increases with higher preheat/interpass temperatures and higher heat input. During the heat treatment, the stresses are relieved. Nevertheless, cracks are formed already during heating. The total crack length correlates with the heat input. KW - Welding KW - Creep-resistant steel KW - Post weld heat treatment KW - Stress relief cracking PY - 2020 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-506271 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-020-00875-6 SN - 1878-6669 VL - 64 IS - 5 SP - 807 EP - 817 PB - Springer CY - Berlin AN - OPUS4-50627 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Schröpfer, Dirk A1 - Rhode, Michael T1 - Local mechanical properties of TIG dissimilar metal welded CoCrFeMnNi high-entropy alloy to austenitic steel AISI 304 N2 - Multiple principal element alloys (MPEA) encompass the well-known high entropy alloys (HEAs). MPEA/HEA represent a new class of materials consisting of at least three alloying elements, each containing 5 to 35 at.-%. This alloying concept thus differs fundamentally from conventional materials such as steel or nickel alloys. For this purpose, the alloying elements are specifically selected, and the microstructures are adjusted in a single-phase and, in some cases, multi-phase manner. In particular, conflicting goals, such as the trade-off between strength and ductility in conventional steels, are overcome. In the last 20 years, however, the focus has been on material synthesis. With the increase in available material quantities, the focus is now on pro-cessing issues such as joining and welding processes. The weldability of MPEA has received very little atten-tion so far. Experience with dissimilar metal welds (DMWs) is completely lacking but is essential for the appli-cation of these materials in combination with conventional materials. The present study presents, comprehen-sive experimental results on the weldability of MPEA-DMWs. For that purpose, a Co20Cr20Fe20Mn20Ni20 HEA in cold-rolled and heat-treated condition was joined by means of tungsten inert gas welding (TIG) with the austenitic Cr-Ni steel AISI 304. The DMWs resulted in interesting mechanical properties. They were obtained by instrumented tensile tests as well as the local deformation in the weld area by using digital image correlation (DIC) technique. A significant softening in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the MPEAs as well as a slightly reduced tensile strength with a significant decrease of the elongation at fracture were found. The experiments provided proof in principle of the weldability of the MPEAs for DMWs with conventional materials that ensure a corresponding capability for mechanical loading. This allows further considerations on the application of these innovative materials. T2 - IIW Annual Assembly, Meeting of Commission C-II CY - Singapore DA - 18.07.2023 KW - High-entropy alloy KW - Welding KW - Microstructure KW - Mechanical properties KW - Dissimilar metal weld PY - 2023 AN - OPUS4-57978 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Richter, Tim A1 - Schröpfer, Dirk A1 - Rhode, Michael T1 - Residual stresses in a high- and a medium-entropy alloy due to TIG and friction stir welding N2 - The new alloying concept of multi-element systems with defined entropy (HEA—high-entropy alloy; MEA—medium-entropy alloy) is gaining increasing importance in materials research. Significantly improved properties or combinations of properties are shown by some HEA/MEA systems. Thus, primarily the production and resulting microstructures of HEA, as well as its properties, have been investigated so far. Furthermore, processing is a main issue in transferring HEA systems from the laboratory to real components. Since welding is the most important joining process for metals, it is crucial to investigate the influence of welding to guarantee component integrity. Welding leads to residual stresses, which significantly affect the component integrity. Hence, the focus of this study is the residual stress formation and distribution in a CoCrFeMnNi HEA and ternary CoCrNi MEA using two different welding processes: tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding and solid-state friction stir welding (FSW). As a pathway for the application of HEA in this investigation, for the first time, residual stress analyses in realistic near-component specimens were performed. The residual stresses were determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD) on the surfaces of top and root weld side. The results were correlated with the local welding microstructures. The results show that both FSW and TIG generate significant tensile residual stresses on the weld surfaces in, and transverse to, the welding direction. In the case of FSW of the CoCrFeMnNi HEA, the longitudinal residual stresses are in the range of the yield strength of approx. 260 MPa in the weld zone. KW - High entropy alloy KW - Welding KW - Residual stresses KW - Microstructure PY - 2022 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-567039 DO - https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp6060147 SN - 2504-4494 VL - 6 IS - 6 SP - 1 EP - 11 PB - MDPI CY - Basel AN - OPUS4-56703 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Taparli, Ugur Alp T1 - Online weld analysis by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) N2 - Principles of online weld inspection using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, inspection of stationary and bead-on-plate welds containing solidification cracks. T2 - Symposium on Materials and Joining Technology CY - Online meeting DA - 07.09.2020 KW - Welding KW - LIBS KW - Austenitic stainless steel KW - Metal vapor KW - Hot cracking PY - 2020 AN - OPUS4-51191 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Schröpfer, Dirk T1 - Influence of welding stresses on relaxation cracking during heat treatment of a creep-resistant 13CrMoV steel, Part III N2 - Efficiency and flexibility are currently a major concern in the design of modern power plants and chemical processing facilities. The high requirements for economic profitability and in particular climate change neutrality are driving this development. Consequently, plant equipment and chemical reactor components are designed for higher operating pressure and temperature. Creep-resistant CrMo steels had been used as constructional materials for decades but came to operational limitations, for example the resistance against so-called high-temperature hydrogen attack in petrochemical reactors. For that purpose, 20 years ago V-modified CrMo steels had been developed for use in the petrochemical industry due to their very good creep-strength and hydrogen pressure resistance at elevated temperatures enabling long service life of the respective components. For example, the 13CrMoV9-10 steel is applicable for process temperatures of up to 482 °C and hydrogen pressures of up to 34.5 MPa. Due to the large dimensions and wall thickness of the reactors (wall thickness up to 475 mm) and the special alloy concept, reliable weld manufacturing of the components is extremely challenging. First, low toughness and high strength of the weld joint in the as-welded condition are critical regarding weld cracking. High welding residual stresses are the result of the highly restrained shrinkage of the component welds. For this purpose, the entire component must be subjected to Post-Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) after completion of the welding operation. The aim is to increase the toughness of the weld joints as well as to reduce the welding induced residual stresses. Before and during PWHT, extreme caution is required to prevent cracking. Unfortunately, V-modified CrMo steels possess an increased susceptibility to cracking during stress relaxation the so-called stress relief cracking (SRC). Available literature studies have largely focused on thermal and metallurgical factors. However, little attention has been paid on the influence of the welding procedure on crack formation during PWHT considering actual manufacturing conditions. For that reason, we investigated in our previous studies (part I and II), the influence of heat control on the mechanical properties by simulating actual manufacturing conditions prevailing during the construction of petrochemical reactors using a special 3D- acting testing facility. The focus of part I was put on the influence of the welding heat control on mechanical stresses and the effect on cracking during PWHT. Part II was mainly dedicated to the metallurgical causes of SRC during PWHT and the interaction with the occurring mechanical stresses. It could be shown that not only high welding-induced stresses due to increased weld heat input cause higher susceptibility for SRC formation. It was further intensified by an altered precipitation behaviour in presence of mechanical stresses that are caused by the component related restraint. The present part III shows how residual stresses, which are present in such welded components and significantly influence the crack formation, can be transferred to the laboratory scale. As a result, the effect on the residual stresses on the SRC behaviour can be evaluated on simplified small-scale specimens instead of expensive mock-ups. For this purpose, experiments with test set-ups at different scales and under different rigidity conditions were designed and carried out. T2 - IIW Annual Assembly, Meeting of Commission II-A CY - Online meeting DA - 20.07.2020 KW - Welding KW - Creep-resistant steel KW - Residual stresses KW - Post weld heat treatment KW - Stress relief cracking PY - 2020 AN - OPUS4-51587 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Rhode, Michael T1 - Microalloying influence on precipitation behavior and mechanical properties of welded high strength structural steels N2 - Microalloying elements, such as Nb and Ti, are essential for the targeted mechanical strength of quenched and tempered, high-strength fine-grained structural steels with a nominal yield strength ≥ 690 MPa. Current specifications for chemical composition only provide upper limits for manufacturers. But even small deviations in the alloying route can have a drastic effect on the mechanical properties. Thus, an adequate prediction of the weldability and the integrity of the welded joint becomes difficult or even impossible due to the varying composition and, hence, the microstructures. Undesirable side effects are the possible softening of the heat-affected zone (HAZ) as well as the opposite effect of hardening. Against this background, different microalloying routes with varying Ti and Nb contents are systematically investigated for the first time on specially designed lab-cast alloys. The basis of each alloy route was the common S690QL in terms of both the chemical composition as well as the heat treatment. To investigate the weldability, three-layer welds were performed using metal active gas welding (MAG) and critical microstructural areas with high softening/hardening were identified. The scope was here on the identification of phase transformations during cooling and on the respective metallurgical precipitation behavior. Isothermal and non-isothermal phase calculations were performed using Thermo-Calc® and showed that the prediction of the non-equilibrium precipitation characteristics during welding is not trivial, especially for this relatively complex chemical composition. The mechanical properties of the welded joints were identified by both Charpy tests (toughness) and tensile tests (strain and strength). During the test, the local straining behavior of the welded joints, was identified using a digital image correlation (DIC) system, see Figure 1. Despite the generally good weldability of the materials, the results show a significant influence of the microalloying route as well as the welding heat input on the different precipitation kinetics. T2 - FEMS EUROMAT 2023 CY - Frankfurt a. M., Germany DA - 04.09.2023 KW - High-strength KW - Steel KW - Mechanical properties KW - Welding KW - Thoughness PY - 2023 AN - OPUS4-58221 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER -