TY - CHAP A1 - Schartel, Bernhard A1 - Kebelmann, Katharina ED - Hu, Y. ED - Wang, X. T1 - Fire testing for the development of flame retardant polymeric materials N2 - Flame retarded polymeric materials are used in various applications in which a certain fire behavior is demanded. Protection goals are defined, such as limited flammability in terms of hindered sustained ignition or limited contribution to a fire, and these protection levels are tested with defined specimens or components in defined fire scenarios, that is to say, different fire tests. Passing a specific fire test by meeting whatever its demands is often the most important development goal, so the parameters of the different fire tests vary widely to emphasize different fire properties. Some fire tests are used to screen or provide a general assessment of flame retardant polymers during development, while other fire tests and tailored experiments are performed to address special phenomena or understand the flame retardancy modes of action. For all fire testing, the devil is in the details – demanding know-how and crucial efforts to manage the quality of investigations and advanced interpretation. This chapter aims to offer a structured overview of all these aspects. KW - Fire testing KW - Flame retardant KW - Fire retardant KW - Flammability KW - Ignition KW - Oxygen index KW - Cone calorimeter KW - UL 94 KW - Developing fire KW - Uncertainty KW - Fire resistance PY - 2020 SN - 978-1-138-29578-7 SP - 35 EP - 55 PB - CRC Press AN - OPUS4-50236 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CHAP A1 - Rabe, Sebastian A1 - Sanchez-Olivares, G. A1 - Pérez-Chávez, R. A1 - Schartel, Bernhard ED - Laoutid, F. T1 - Natural Keratin and Coconut Fibres from Industrial Wastes in Flame Retarded Thermoplastic Starch Biocomposites N2 - Natural keratin fibres derived from Mexican tannery waste and coconut fibres from coconut processing waste were used as fillers in commercially available, biodegradable thermoplastic starch-polyester blend to obtain sustainable biocomposites. The morphology, rheological and mechanical properties as well as pyrolysis, flammability and forced flaming combustion behaviour of those biocomposites were investigated. In order to open up new application areas for these Kinds of biocomposites, ammonium polyphosphate (APP) was added as a flame retardant. Extensive flammability and cone calorimeter studies revealed a good flame retardance effect with natural fibres alone and improved effectiveness with the addition of APP. In fact, it was shown that replacing 20 of 30 wt. % of APP with keratin fibres achieved the same effectiveness. In the case of coconut fibres, a synergistic effect led to an even lower heat release rate and total heat evolved due to reinforced char residue. This was confirmed via scanning electron microscopy of the char structure. All in all, these results constitute a good approach towards sustainable and biodegradable fibre reinforced biocomposites with improved flame retardant properties. KW - Biomaterials KW - Biodegradation KW - Calorimetry KW - Composites KW - Flame retardance PY - 2020 SN - 978-3-03928-350-7 SN - 978-3-03928-351-4 SP - 45 EP - 66 PB - MDPI AN - OPUS4-50738 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CHAP A1 - Schartel, Bernhard ED - Troitzsch, J. ED - Antonatus, E. T1 - The Burning of Plastics N2 - The burning of a polymer is a physico–chemical process strongly influenced by the coupling of a chemical reaction – oxidation of fuel – in the gas phase with a chemical decomposition reaction – pyrolysis – in the condensed phase via heat and mass transfer. The heat and mass flux control the intensity of fire and the ablation of fuel. Indeed, the temperature profile as a function of time may be one of the most important responses of a specimen to understand its burning behavior. Further, several physical phenomena, such as the heat absorption of the materials, thermal conductivity, and also melt flow and dripping, play a major role in determining ignition, flammability, and fire behavior. The burning of a polymer is very complex. The various phenomena interact with each other, e. g., pyrolysis also influences the viscosity of the melt, and, thus, whether dripping or charring results in a protective layer, increasing the shielding effect of the residual protective layer. Only a detailed and comprehensive description opens the door to a well-founded understanding of the burning behavior of polymeric materials. KW - Fire behaviour KW - Plastics KW - Pyrolysis KW - Decomposition KW - Ignition KW - Smoldering KW - Flame spread KW - Steady burning KW - Fire load KW - Fire resistance PY - 2021 SN - 978-1-56990-762-7 SP - 23 EP - 52 PB - Hanser CY - Munich ET - 4th Edition AN - OPUS4-52684 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CHAP A1 - Schartel, Bernhard ED - Morgan, A.B. T1 - Multicomponent Flame Retardants N2 - The important take home message of this chapter: When multicomponent flame retardant systems are applied to polymeric materials, it becomes possible to address multiple fire properties, increase efficiency, and minimize flame retardant use to maximize polymer property balance. Flame retardants are combined or used together with adjuvants or synergists; fibers and fillers make a crucial contribution to their fire properties. Multicomponent systems are discussed in their capacity as an overall powerful strategy for achieving and optimizing non-halogenated flame-retardant polymeric materials. KW - Flame retardants KW - Synergy KW - Adjuvants KW - Fillers KW - Fibres PY - 2022 SN - 978-1-119-75056-7 SP - 413 EP - 474 PB - Scrivener Publishing LLC CY - Bevery ET - 2nd Edition AN - OPUS4-54426 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CHAP A1 - Hothan, Sascha A1 - Häßler, Dustin ED - Kuhlmann, U. T1 - Reaktive Brandschutzsysteme N2 - Die Erkenntnisse zu reaktiven Brandschutzsystemen (RBS) werden kontinuierlich erweitert, was sich in der Entwicklung neuer Produkte und der Ausweitung des durch technische Regelungen abgedeckten Anwendungsbereichs äußert. Der vorliegende Beitrag konzentriert sich auf die Verwendung von RBS auf Stahlkonstruktionen. Neben einer umfassenden Darstellung der aktuellen nationalen und europäischen Regelungen zu RBS, werden technologische Besonderheiten und deren Einfluss auf den Regelungsinhalt im Beitrag thematisiert. Dabei werden neben sich abzeichnenden Neuerungen auch die entsprechenden wissenschaftlich-technologischen Grundlagen dargelegt. Ferner wird die Frage nach der Bewertung der Dauerhaftigkeit von RBS für deutlich über 10 Jahre hinausgehende Zeiträume, und den sich damit einstellenden Feuerwiderstand der Konstruktion behandelt. Der Beitrag schließt mit einer Darstellung zur aktuellen Forschung. Daraus abgeleitet wird ein Ausblick auf zukünftige Forschungsthemen. KW - Reaktives Brandschutzsystem KW - Stahl KW - Brandschutz KW - Feuerwiderstand PY - 2022 SN - 978-3-433-03361-6 SP - 367 EP - 400 PB - Ernst & Sohn Verlag CY - Berlin AN - OPUS4-54735 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CHAP A1 - Schartel, Bernhard ED - Morgan, A. B. ED - Wilkie, C. A. T1 - Multi-Component Flame-Retardant Systems N2 - Applying synergistic multicomponent systems is often key to efficient flame retardancy. Different flame retardants are combined or used together with fillers, adjuvants, or synergists to enhance their efficiency, reduce the worsening of other properties, or reduce the costs. Further, fibres and other reinforcing fillers contribute to fire properties crucially. Although the main flame-retardant modes of action are known, the scientific understanding usually falls short, when it comes to complex multicomponent systems, the crucial tiny optimizations, or quantifying in terms of specific fire properties. This book chapter illuminates the need for the multicomponent approach, the concept of synergistic flame retardants, and the main phenomena. Multicomponent systems are discussed in their capacity as general powerful strategy for achieving and optimizing future flame retardant polymeric materials. KW - Flame retardants KW - Flame retardancy KW - Synergy KW - Composites PY - 2024 SN - 978-1-0324-5754-3 SN - 978-1-0324-6233-2 SN - 978-1-0033-8068-9 DO - https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003380689 SP - 330 EP - 359 PB - CRC Press CY - Boca Raton ET - 3rd AN - OPUS4-60843 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CHAP A1 - Schartel, Bernhard ED - Morgan, A. B. ED - Wilkie, C. A. T1 - Uses of Fire Tests for Flame-Retardant Material Development N2 - Innovation and scientific progress are often located in the synthesis of new flame retardants or in the compounding of new composites. Thus, although nearly everyone applies fire tests to ascertain the flame retardancy achieved, regular, cost-efficient fire testing is preferred, sometimes its reliability and meaningfulness are questioned. The goal of this revised chapter is to inspire the exploitation of the potential of fire testing beyond a soulless pass-and-fail or isolated number rating. Recommendations are given as to how fire behaviour can be investigated and how data can be evaluated faithfully and meaningfully. Backgrounds and benchmarks are discussed as thought-provoking impulses which could allow bench-scale fire testing to be exploited as a vital basis and powerful tool for science-based development. KW - Fire behaviour KW - Flammability KW - Flame retardancy KW - Flame retardant modes of action KW - Flame retardants KW - Fire scenarios KW - Ignition KW - Developing fire KW - Fire tests KW - Cone calorimeter KW - Petrella plot PY - 2024 SN - 978-1-0324-5754-3 SN - 978-1-0324-6233-2 SN - 978-1-0033-8068-9 DO - https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003380689-17 SP - 360 EP - 385 PB - CRC Press CY - Boca Raton ET - 3rd AN - OPUS4-60845 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CHAP A1 - Brinkmann, M. A1 - Wiehle, Philipp A1 - Thiele, Marc A1 - Graubner, C.-A. ED - Schermer, D. ED - Brehm, E. T1 - Grundlagen zur Bemessung druckbeanspruchten Lehmmauerwerks N2 - Lehmmauerwerk bietet sich aufgrund seiner zahlreichen ökologischen Vorteile für die Errichtung klimafreundlicher und ressourcenschonender Gebäude an. Um den Anwendungsbereich tragenden Lehmmauerwerks durch eine zeitgemäße Nachweisführung zu erweitern, werden in diesem Beitrag Grundlagen für die Entwicklung eines eurocodekonformen Bemessungskonzepts erarbeitet. Hierzu werden die Ergebnisse umfangreicher experimenteller Untersuchungen an Lehmmauerwerk sowie Lehmsteinen und -mörteln nach Konditionierung bei unterschiedlichen Klimata vorgestellt. Darauf aufbauend erfolgt eine Traglastanalyse druckbeanspruchter Lehmmauerwerkswände mittels numerischer und analytischer Methoden. Die daraus gewonnenen Erkenntnisse werden abschließend in einen an DIN~EN~1996-3/NA angelehnten Bemessungsvorschlag überführt, welcher die materialspezifischen Besonderheiten von Lehmmauerwerk berücksichtigt und eine fundierte Grundlage für eine wirtschaftliche und zuverlässige Nachweisführung darstellt. KW - Druckfestigkeit KW - Lehm KW - Mauerwerk KW - Bemessung KW - Feuchte PY - 2023 SN - 978-3-433-03373-9 DO - https://doi.org/10.1002/9783433611142.ch4 VL - 48 SP - 79 EP - 110 PB - Ernst & Sohn GmbH CY - Berlin ET - 1 AN - OPUS4-57509 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CHAP A1 - Oliveira, C. A1 - Silveira, D. A1 - Varum, H. A1 - Parisi, F. A1 - Miccoli, Lorenzo A1 - Solis, M. A1 - Rodriguez-Mariscal, J. D. A1 - Tarque, N. ED - Varum, H. ED - Parisi, F. ED - Tarque, N. ED - Silveira, D. T1 - Mechanical Characterization of Adobe Masonry N2 - The characterization of the mechanical properties and behaviour of adobe masonry is fundamental for the understanding of the structural behaviour of adobe constructions. Thus, in the last decades, experimental studies focused on this topic have been carried out by different authors. Many of the existing experimental works, however, were carried out aiming to support broader studies focused on the seismic behaviour of adobe constructions and are not very detailed. Moreover, authors tend to adopt different procedures in their experimental work, since there are few indications in existing standards for testing adobe masonry. The wide variety in materials used, both for the adobes and mortars, further complicates this work, making it difficult to compare results obtained in different studies. This chapter provides an overview of the indications given by standards and other technical recommendations for the mechanical testing of adobe masonry. It presents a review of existing research on the mechanical behaviour of adobe masonry, addressing studies that focus on: (i) compression behaviour, (ii) shear behaviour, (iii) joint shear behaviour. It provides a global analysis of the existing knowledge, suggesting improvements for normative documents and identifying future Research needs. KW - Adobe masonry KW - Mechanical behaviour KW - Experimental tests KW - Standards PY - 2021 SN - 978-3-030-74736-7 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74737-4_4 SN - 2194-9832 VL - 20 SP - 55 EP - 92 PB - Springer Nature Switzerland AG AN - OPUS4-54171 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CHAP A1 - Silveira, D. A1 - Oliveira, C. A1 - Varum, H. A1 - Ioannou, I. A1 - Miccoli, Lorenzo A1 - Tarque, N. A1 - Parisi, F. A1 - Fenu, L. A1 - Solis, M. A1 - Rodriguez-Mariscal, J. D. ED - Varum, H. ED - Parisi, F. ED - Tarque, N. ED - Silveira, D. T1 - Mechanical Characterization of Adobe Bricks N2 - The mechanical characterization of adobe bricks is an important first step in the study of the behaviour of adobe masonry. For this reason, in the last decades, different authors have conducted research on the mechanical behaviour of adobes from various regions of the world. Despite the importance of mechanical characterization, there are still only a few standards and normative documents with clear indications for the mechanical testing of earthen materials and, in general, These indications are not thorough and vary among different countries. Consequently, authors tend to adopt different types of test specimens and procedures in their experimental work, thus obtaining results that are not directly comparable. The fact that the materials and procedures traditionally used are also not standardized,varying greatly from region to region, also contributes to the difficulty of comparing results from different studies. This chapter presents a review of the indications provided by codes, standards and other technical recommendations for the mechanical testing of adobe bricks, as well as a detailed review of procedures adopted, and results obtained by different authors regarding the mechanical characterization of traditional adobe bricks. This chapter focuses, in particular, on the behaviour of adobe bricks when subjected to simple compression. It provides an overview of the existing knowledge and identifies needs for future research and development. KW - Adobe KW - Adobe masonry KW - Mechanical behaviour KW - Test procedures KW - Standards PY - 2021 SN - 978-3-030-74736-7 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74737-4 SN - 2194-9832 VL - 20 SP - 35 EP - 54 PB - Springer Nature Switzerland AG AN - OPUS4-54170 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CHAP A1 - Schartel, Bernhard ED - Hu, Y. ED - Wang, X. T1 - Influence of the Size and Dispersion State of Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials on the Fire Safety of Polymers N2 - Only the nano-scaled structure of the nanocomposite and the dispersion of nanoparticles within the polymer matrix harbor multifunctional potential including superior fire retardancy. Thus, this chapter focuses on the dispersion of nanoplates, based mainly on studies of layered silicates and graphene/graphene-related nanoplates. The nanostructure and properties of the nanocomposites are dependent mainly on thermodynamic and kinetic factors during preparation. Improving nano-dispersion often directly improves flame retardancy. Therefore, the modification of the nanoplates as well as the preparation of nanocomposites becomes very important to control this dispersion. The dispersion of nanoplates functions as a prerequisite for the formation of an efficient protective layer, changing the melt flow and dripping behavior, or the improvement of the char properties. KW - Nanocomposite KW - Flame retardancy KW - 2D nanoparticle KW - Exfoliation KW - Dispersion KW - Flammability PY - 2023 SN - 978-1-032-35268-8 SN - 978-1-032-35502-3 SN - 978-1-003-32715-8 DO - https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003327158-2 SP - 23 EP - 58 PB - CRC Press CY - Boca Raton AN - OPUS4-58290 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CHAP A1 - Schönhals, Andreas A1 - Böhning, Martin A1 - Szymoniak, Paulina ED - Schönhals, Andreas ED - Szymoniak, Paulina T1 - (Nano)Composite Materials—An Introduction N2 - The chapter gives a brief introduction to (nano)compositecomposite materials having the focus on polymer-based nanocomposites. The different dimensionalities of nanoparticles are introduced, along with their distribution in the matrix. Different application fields of polymer-based nanocomposites, like flame retardancy, filled rubbers, nanofilled thermosets and thermoplastics, separation membranes and nanodielectrics, are considered in greater detail. KW - Polymer-based nanocomposites KW - Nanoparticle KW - Distribution of nanoparticles KW - Filled rubbers KW - Filled thermosets and plastics KW - Separation membranes KW - Nanodielectrics PY - 2022 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89723-9_1 SP - 1 EP - 31 PB - Springer CY - Cham, Switzerland AN - OPUS4-54565 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER -