TY - JOUR A1 - Goller, Sebastian M. A1 - Schartel, Bernhard A1 - Krüger, Simone T1 - Block it and rock it: Smoke suppressants that form a protective layer in PA 6.6 N2 - To ensure fire safety, polymers are filled with flame retardants and smoke suppressants. To meet the highest requirements, it is essential to understand the decomposition of those polymeric materials. This study reveals interactions between polymer, smoke suppressants, and flame retardants, and discusses their impact on the materials’ flame retardancy, smoke emission, smoke toxicity, and particle emission in conventional loadings to provide deeper general understanding. Low melting oxide glass, melem, spherical silica, sepiolite, melamine polyphosphate, and boehmite in an aluminum diethylphosphinate flame-retarded polyamide 6.6 were investigated. All smoke suppressants improve the protective layer and act as an adjuvant. Silica and melem performed best under forced flaming conditions. Spherical silica reduces the peak of heat release rate by 39% and the total heat evolved by 14%, whereas 10 wt% melem lowers the total smoke production by 41%. Melem alters the mode of action of aluminum diethylphosphinate from gas to more condensed phase activity. This change reduces flame inhibition and hence smoke toxicity, but further improves the protective layer due to charring reactions in the decomposition mechanism. In addition, the sizes of the smoke particles decrease because of the prolonged time in the pyrolytic zone. This study highlights that interactions between polymer, flame retardants, and smoke suppressants can significantly determine the smoking and burning behavior. KW - Smoke suppressant KW - Flame retardancy KW - Aluminum diethylphosphinate KW - Smoke KW - Polyamide 6.6 PY - 2024 DO - https://doi.org/10.1177/07349041231220250 SN - 0734-9041 VL - 42 IS - 2 SP - 117 EP - 141 PB - SAGE Publications AN - OPUS4-59533 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Goller, Sebastian M. A1 - Schartel, Bernhard A1 - Krüger, Simone T1 - Phosphorus features halogen –calcium hypophosphite replaces antimony trioxide, reduces smoke, and improves flame retardancy N2 - Replacing antimony trioxide (ATO) in flame retardant formulations is an urgent task due to its toxicity. There are indications that calcium hypophosphite (CaP) may be a promising replacement. This study investigates the decomposition, fire behavior, and smoke release of brominated flame-retarded acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) under various fire scenarios like ignition, developing fire and smoldering, while replacing ATO with CaP and CaP/talc. Adding 4 wt.-% of talc to CaP formulations showed beneficial effects on flammability due to changes in the viscosity and barrier properties. Synergism between 8 wt.-% talc and CaP improved the protective layer in the developing fire scenario, resulting in a ∼60 % decrease in the peak of heat release rate and reduction of ∼21 % in total smoke production (ref. ABS+Br+ATO). With a conventional index of toxicity (CIT) of below 0.75, ABS+Br+CaP passes the highest requirements according to EN 45545-2. Overall, the CaP/talc materials improve flame retardancy, show less smoke emission under forced flaming conditions, and prevent chronic intoxication and environmental pollution through smoke particles contaminated with antimony. KW - Smoke KW - Flame retardancy KW - Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene KW - Calcium hypophosphite KW - Antimony trioxide PY - 2024 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tca.2024.179764 SN - 0040-6031 VL - 737 SP - 1 EP - 9 PB - Elsevier Ltd. AN - OPUS4-60063 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Rappsilber, Tim A1 - Yusfi, Nawar A1 - Krüger, Simone A1 - Hahn, S.-K. A1 - Fellinger, Tim-Patrick A1 - Krug von Nidda, Jonas A1 - Tschirschwitz, Rico T1 - Meta-analysis of heat release and smoke gas emission during thermal runaway of lithium-ion batteries N2 - Herein a meta-analysis of 76 experimental research papers from 2000 to 2021 is given about possible effects on the thermal runaway of lithium-ion battery cells. Data on the hazards of gas emissions and released heat are related to each other and differentiated by cell properties such as, cell geometry, cathode type or state of charge. Quantitative information on the total heat release in the range of 2.0–112.0 kJ Wh−1, the peak heat release rate in the range of 0.006–2.8 kW Wh−1and the smoke gas emission were extracted, normalized in terms of cell energy (Wh), combined in a data library and compared graphically. The total amount of gas emitted (3–48 mmol Wh−1) as well as the released amount of carbon monoxide (1–161 mg Wh−1) and hydrogen fluoride (2–197 mg Wh−1) were investigated as a function of the state of charge and cell geometry. The analysis reveals that the measured values are significantly influenced by the types of calorimeters and smoke gas analyzers used as well as by the type of thermal runaway trigger. This meta-analysis can serve as an important basis for any risk assessment of lithium-ion batteries. KW - Lithium-ion battery KW - Thermal runaway KW - Cathode active material KW - Heat release KW - Smoke gas emission PY - 2023 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-568071 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.106579 SN - 2352-152X VL - 60 SP - 1 EP - 15 PB - Elsevier CY - Amsterdam AN - OPUS4-56807 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Goller, Sebastian M. A1 - Krüger, Simone A1 - Schartel, Bernhard T1 - No business as usual: The effect of smoke suppressants commonly used in the flame retardant PA6.6 on smoke and fire properties N2 - As most of polymeric materials are inherently flammable, flame retardants (FR) are commonly used to reduce their fire risks. Nevertheless, these flame retardant materials are often detrimental to smoke parameters like specific optical density or smoke toxicity. The influence of several smoke suppressants (SP)-zinc stannate, zinc phosphate, titanium oxide and hydrotalcite-were investigated with respect to flame retardancy, smoke emission, particle emission and smoke toxicity in a diethyl aluminum phosphinate (AlPi) flame retardant polyamide 6.6 (PA6.6). It was shown that the interaction between SP, FR and polymer is crucial for smoke and fire properties and can change the mode of action of the FR as well the decomposition mechanism of the polymer. Small amounts of SP show less effect on forced flaming behavior and the optical density, but they can influence flammability and the particle size distribution of the soot particles. The flame retardancy was significantly enhanced by 5 wt.-% zinc stannate in PA6.6 under forced flaming conditions. The charring mechanism was improved, and the mode of action of AlPi switched from the gas to the condensed phase. This resulted of in a reduced PHRR and TSP and an increase in residue yield. The smoke toxicity and optical density were reduced in the smoke density chamber as well. The smoke particles shifted to smaller sizes as the time in the pyrolytic zone increased. The formation of a dense char is assumed to be the key factor to enhance smoke suppression and flame retardancy properties. KW - Polyamide 6.6 KW - Smoke suppression KW - Flame retardancy KW - Zinc stannate KW - Smoke density PY - 2023 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2023.110276 SN - 0141-3910 VL - 209 PB - Elsevier Ltd. AN - OPUS4-56981 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Morys, Michael A1 - Häßler, Dustin A1 - Krüger, Simone A1 - Schartel, Bernhard A1 - Hothan, Sascha T1 - Beyond the standard time-temperature curve: Assessment of intumescent coatings under standard and deviant temperature curves N2 - Nowadays there are intumescent coatings available for diverse applications. There is no established assessment of their protection performance besides the standard time-temperature curve, but natural fire scenarios often play an important role. A reliable straightforward performance-based assessment is presented. The effective thermal conductivity per thickness is calculated based on intermediate-scale fire tests. The optimum thermal insulation, the time to reach it, and the time until contingent failure of the coating are used for an assessment independent of the heating curve. The procedure was conducted on four different commercially intumescent coatings for steel construction, one solvent-based, one waterborne, one epoxy-based, and a bandage impregnated with a waterborne coating. The performance was studied under four different but similar shaped heating curves with different maximum temperatures (standard time-temperature curve, hydrocarbon curve and two self-designed curves with reduced temperature). The thermal protection performance is crucially affected by the residue morphology. Therefore, a comprehensive morphology analysis, including micro-computed tomography and scanning electron microscopy, was conducted on small-scale residues (7.5 x 7.5 cm2). Two different types of inner structures and the residue surface after different heat exposures were discussed in terms of their influence on thermal protection performance. KW - Intumescence KW - Coating KW - Computed tomography KW - Small scale KW - Heating curves KW - Residue morphology PY - 2020 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2020.102951 SN - 0379-7112 VL - 112 SP - 102951 PB - Elsevier Ltd. AN - OPUS4-50334 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Wosniok, Aleksander A1 - Skoczowsky, Danilo A1 - Schukar, Marcus A1 - Pötzsch, Sina A1 - Pötschke, Samuel A1 - Krüger, Simone T1 - Fiber optic sensors for high-temperature measurements on composite tanks in fire N2 - For the purpose of increasing payload and reduce freight cost, lightweight composite tank containers used for Transportation have been progressively developed during the last years. Compared to conventionally produced cylindrical steel tanks, the fiber-reinforced solutions allow greater flexibility in the tank design. Despite a number of further material-related benefits of fiber-reinforced composites as non-conductive and non-magnetic behavior as well as corrosion resistance and high strength, the optimization of their thermal degradation properties during combustion is still a challenge. To improve the fire performance of lightweight composite containers, special intumescent fire protection coatings can be applied onto the outside tank surface. This paper presents fire tests on glass-fiber-reinforced plastic transport tanks with complex geometries sheltered with different surface-applied fire protection systems. To evaluate the fire resistance of the tank structures, a fiber optic monitoring system was developed. This system is based on distributed temperature measurements using high-Resolution optical backscatter reflectometry and pointwise reference measurements using fiber Bragg gratings. Thereby, all the fiber optic sensors were directly integrated in the composite layer structure of the tanks. The focus of the presented work is on the demonstration of capability of fiber optic monitoring system in such high-temperature application. Moreover, the fiber optic measurements provide new insights into the efficiency of intumescent coating applied for fire protection of fiber-reinforced plastic transport tanks. KW - Fire resistance KW - Composite material KW - Glass-fiber-reinforced plastic transport tank KW - Distributed fiber optic sensing KW - Optical backscatter reflectometry KW - Fiber optic sensor PY - 2019 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-481972 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/s13349-019-00338-7 SN - 2190-5452 SN - 2190-5479 SP - 1 EP - 8 PB - Springer Nature AN - OPUS4-48197 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Häßler, Mai A1 - Häßler, Dustin A1 - Hothan, Sascha A1 - Krüger, Simone T1 - Fire tests of steel tension rod systems with intumescent coating N2 - Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the performance of intumescent coating on tension rod systems and their components. Steel tension rod systems consist of tension rods, fork end connectors and associated intersection or gusset plates. In case of fire, beside the tension rods themselves, the connection parts require appropriate fire protection. Intumescent fire protection coatings prevent a rapid heating of the steel and help secure the structural load-carrying capacity. Because the connection components of tension rod systems feature surface curvature and a complex geometry, high demand is placed on the intumescence and thermal protection performance of the coatings. Design/methodology/approach – In this paper, experimental studies were carried out for steel tension rod systems with intumescent coating. The examined aspects include the foaming and cracking behaviour, the influence of different dry film thicknesses, the heating rate of the steel connecting parts in comparison to the tension rods, and the mounting orientation of the tension rods together with their fork end connectors. Findings – The results show that a decrease in surface curvature and/or an increase inmass concentration of the steel components leads to a lower heating rate of the steel. Moreover, the performance of the intumescent coating on tension rod systems is influenced by themounting orientation of the steel components. Originality/value – The findings based on fire tests contribute to a better understanding of the intumescent coating performance on connection components of tension rod systems. This subject has not been extensively studied yet. KW - Steel KW - Fire test KW - Intumescent coating KW - Reactive fire protection system KW - Tension rod system PY - 2019 DO - https://doi.org/10.1108/JSFE-01-2019-0005 SN - 2040-2317 VL - 11 IS - 1 SP - 22 EP - 32 PB - Emerald Publishing Limited AN - OPUS4-48714 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Moustapha, M.E. A1 - Farag, Z.R. A1 - Krüger, Simone A1 - Geesi, M.H. A1 - Friedrich, J.F. T1 - Potentiometric studies on the influence of poly(vinylpyrrolidone) on the thermal degradation behavior of poly(vinyl chloride) blends N2 - The thermal degradation behavior of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) and poly(N-vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP) blends was investigated using potentiometric measurements of the released HCl gas during the degradation process, estimating the degree of discoloration of the degraded samples and measuring the thermal stability values (Ts) values. The influence of the PVP percentage in the blend and, moreover, the addition of commercial dibasic lead carbonate stabilizer to the blend on its thermal stability was studied. It was found that the dehydrochlorination rate of the blend was promoted by increasing the PVP concentration in the blend. KW - Poly(vinyl chloride) KW - Poly(N-vinylpyrrolidone) KW - Potentiometry PY - 2019 DO - https://doi.org/10.3139/120.111304 SN - 0025-5300 VL - 61 IS - 2 SP - 179 EP - 183 PB - Carl Hanser CY - München AN - OPUS4-47360 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Carabba, L. A1 - Masi, G. A1 - Pirskawetz, Stephan A1 - Krüger, Simone A1 - Gluth, Gregor A1 - Bignozzi, M.C. ED - Serdar, M. ED - Stirmer, N. ED - Provis, J. T1 - Thermal properties and steel corrosion in light-weight alkali-activated mortars N2 - This study aims at investigating the use of coal fly ash-based alkali activated mortars as passive fire protection system for steel structures. These systems are used to slow down the temperature rise of the steel substrate in case of fire. In addition, the protective system should guarantee the ability to prevent and/or mitigate steel corrosion phenomena. The behavior of a light-weight mortar was compared to that of a normal-weight mortar. Density and porosity were measured to better characterize the physical properties of the mortars. The degree of protection in case of fire was assessed by performing medium-scale fire tests. Acoustic emission measurements were conducted to analyze cracking phenomena during the high temperature exposure. The corrosion process was evaluated using an electrochemical approach in order to monitor the durability of the developed material. Preliminary results show that a 20 mm-thick layer of light-weight mortar is able to protect the steel substrate from reaching the critical temperature of 500 °C for 38 minutes in case of cellulosic fire. In addition, alkali activated mortars provide protection for carbon steel in presence of aggressive environment (i.e. presence of chlorides). The corrosion resistance is strictly related to the physical properties of the developed mortars. T2 - International Conference on Sustainable Materials, Systems and Structures (SMSS 2019) CY - Rovinj, Croatia DA - 20.03.2019 KW - Fire resistance KW - Steel corrosion KW - Acoustic emission KW - Alkali-activated materials PY - 2019 SN - 978-2-35158-223-7 VL - 1 SP - 125 EP - 132 PB - RILEM Publications CY - Paris AN - OPUS4-47584 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Carabba, L. A1 - Pirskawetz, Stephan A1 - Krüger, Simone A1 - Gluth, Gregor A1 - Bignozzi, M.C. T1 - Acoustic emission study of heat-induced cracking in fly ash-based alkali-activated pastes and lightweight mortars N2 - Alkali-activated fly ashes have been proposed for various applications where resistance against high temperatures is required, yet several details regarding the response of these materials to heat-exposure need to be clarified. In the present study, heat-induced cracking in fly ash-based alkali-activated pastes and lightweight mortars was analyzed by in-situ acoustic emission (AE) detection during complete heating-cooling cycles (up to ∼1100 °C), augmented by thermogravimetry and ex-situ SEM and XRD analyses. The applicability of the lightweight mortars as passive fire protection coatings was assessed by recording temperature-time curves of mortar-coated steel plates. Cracking during heating was limited and associated exclusively with the dehydration of the materials in the temperature range ∼90–360 °C. However, samples heated to temperatures above ∼600 °C exhibited intense cracking on cooling. This was attributed to differential deformations caused by local sintering and partial melting at the glass transition temperature, and subsequent quenching on cooling. KW - Alkali-activated materials KW - Acoustic emission KW - Fire proofing KW - Heat resistance KW - Cracking PY - 2019 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2019.04.013 SN - 0958-9465 SN - 1873-393X VL - 102 SP - 145 EP - 156 PB - Elsevier AN - OPUS4-47904 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Rappsilber, Tim A1 - Krüger, Simone A1 - Below, Philipp T1 - Wood crib fire tests to evaluate the influence of extinguishing media and jet type on extinguishing performance at close range N2 - This paper is intended to be the first study to discuss the fire suppressing performance of the four most common extinguishing media under the same reproducible conditions. The tests were performed in bench-scale and used standardized 5A wood cribs as well as a miniature extinguishing system with a liquid flow rate of 1.4 lmin−1. The tests results present a consistent overview of the fire suppression efficacies of water, water with a foaming agent, nozzle-aspirated foam and compressed air foam. Depending on their jet types, the cooling capabilities of the extinguishing media water and water with a foaming agent were compared to the cooling capability of a full Jet of wet, general and dry foams. The results show that compressed air foam suppressed fire most effectively under the test conditions. Because of the convoluted crib structure, water and water with foaming agents used from a distance are more effective in the form of a full jet rather than a spraying jet. At close range, spraying jets multiply their effectiveness. A slight difference can be observed in the cooling performance of extinguishing foams that use foaming agents from different manufacturers. The paper establishes a link between the foaming agent's cooling capability and its wetting power by relating the results of wood crib fire tests according to DIN EN 3–7 and findings from laboratory immersion tests compliant with DIN EN 1772. KW - CAF KW - Druckluftschaum KW - Löschen KW - Krippe PY - 2019 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2019.04.014 SN - 0379-7112 SN - 1873-7226 VL - 106 SP - 136 EP - 145 PB - Elsevier Ltd. AN - OPUS4-47996 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Tschirschwitz, Rico A1 - Krentel, Daniel A1 - Kluge, Martin A1 - Askar, Enis A1 - Habib, Abdel Karim A1 - Kohlhoff, Harald A1 - Krüger, Simone A1 - Neumann, Patrick P. A1 - Rudolph, Miachael A1 - Schoppa, André A1 - Storm, Sven-Uwe A1 - Szczepaniak, Mariusz ED - Aga, Diana ED - Daugulis, Andrew ED - Li Puma, Gianluca ED - Lyberatos, Gerasimos ED - Tay, Joo Hwa ED - Lima, Éder Claudio T1 - Hazards from failure of CNG automotive cylinders in fire N2 - Compressed natural gas (CNG) is a widely used automotive fuel in a variety of countries. In case of a vehicle fire where the safety device also malfunctions, a failure of the CNG automotive cylinder could occur. Such a cylinder failure is associated with severe hazards for the surrounding environment. Firstly, a comprehensive analysis is given below, summarizing various accidents involving CNG automotive cylinders and their consequences. In an extensive experimental program, 21 CNG automotive cylinders with no safety device were tested. Of the 21, burst tests were carried out on 5 Type III and 5 Type IV cylinders. Furthermore, fire tests with 8 Type III and 3 Type IV cylinders were conducted. Apart from cylinder pressure, inner temperature and cylinder mantle temperature, the periphery consequences, such as nearfield blast pressure and fragmentation are documented. The maximum measured overpressure due to a Type III cylinder failure was p = 0.41 bar. Each traceable fragment was georeferenced. All-in-all, fragment throw distances of d > 300 m could be observed. As one key result, it can be stated that the tested Type IV CNG cylinders showed less critical failure behavior then the Type III cylinders under fire impingement. KW - CNG KW - Composite cylinder KW - Gas cylinder KW - Tank failure KW - Fragments PY - 2019 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.12.026 SN - 0304-3894 SN - 1873-3336 VL - 367 SP - 1 EP - 7 PB - Elsevier CY - New York City, New York, USA AN - OPUS4-47135 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Rappsilber, Tim A1 - Krüger, Simone T1 - Design fires with mixed-material burning cribs to determine the extinguishing effects of compressed air foams N2 - This study evaluates the efficacy of compressed air foam (CAF) in comparison to common fire extinguishing media. Newly developed mixed-material burning cribs were used as a normative fire load for extinguishing tests to accurately represent the significantly elevated utilization of synthetic materials in everyday life. A series of outdoor experiments was carried out to analyze the effectiveness of the fire extinguishing medium CAF using synthetical class-A foaming agents from two different manufacturers, and compared them to water and waterfoam solution as a function of the extinguishing distance. In a second series, performed inside a fire room, the efficiency of CAF-usage in indoor fires was evaluated. Moreover, the results of the indoor test series provided information about the composition of smoke gases based on the kind of extinguishing tactic used to suppress the fire. The results showed that under the tested conditions CAF suppressed fire more effectively than both water and water with foaming agents. CAF was able to wet areas hardly accessible to other extinguishing media, and due to its various simultaneously occurring effects and its compact jet with high kinetic energy, it cooled down temperatures more efficiently than water or water-foam solution. KW - Crib KW - Compressed Air Foam KW - Design fire KW - Extinguish KW - Fire test PY - 2018 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2018.03.004 SN - 0379-7112 SN - 1873-7226 VL - 98 SP - 3 EP - 14 PB - Elsevier Ltd. AN - OPUS4-44632 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Legall, Herbert A1 - Schwanke, Christoph A1 - Pentzien, Simone A1 - Dittmar, G. A1 - Bonse, Jörn A1 - Krüger, Jörg T1 - X-ray emission as a potential hazard during ultrashort pulse laser material processing N2 - In laser machining with ultrashort laser pulses unwanted X-ray radiation in the keV range can be generated when a critical laser intensity is exceeded. Even if the emitted X-ray dose per pulse is low, high laser repetition rates can lead to an accumulation of X-ray doses beyond exposure safety limits. For 925 fs pulse duration at a center wavelength of 1030 nm, the X-ray emission was investigated up to an intensity of 2.6 × 10^14 W/cm2. The experiments were performed in air with a thin disk laser at a repetition rate of 400 kHz. X-ray spectra and doses were measured for various planar target materials covering a wide range of the periodic table from aluminum to tungsten. Without radiation shielding, the measured radiation doses at this high repetition rate clearly exceed the regulatory limits. Estimations for an adequate radiation shielding are provided. KW - Laser-induced X-ray emission KW - Ultrashort laser material interaction KW - Femtosecond laser KW - Radiation protection PY - 2018 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-448431 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/s00339-018-1828-6 SN - 0947-8396 SN - 1432-0630 VL - 124 IS - 6 SP - Article 407, 1 EP - 8 PB - Springer AN - OPUS4-44843 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Häßler, Mai A1 - Häßler, Dustin A1 - Hothan, Sascha A1 - Krüger, Simone T1 - Performance of intumescent fire protection coatings on steel tension rod systems N2 - Steel tension rod systems consist of tension rods, fork connectors and associated intersection or connecting plates. They are used for truss systems, bracings or suspensions owing to slender design and increased economic efficiency. In case of fire, beside the tension rods themselves, the connection parts require appropriate fire protection. The use of intumescent fire protection coatings prevents a rapid heating of the steel and helps to ensure the load-carrying capacity of the structures. Because the connection components of the tension rod systems feature surface curvature as well as a complex geometry, high demand is placed on the intumescence and thermal protection effectiveness of the reactive fire protection coatings. Experimental studies were carried out to investigate the performance of intumescent coatings applied to the components of tension rod systems. The examined aspects include the foaming and cracking behaviour of the intumescent coatings, the influence of different dry film thicknesses (DFT), the heating rate of the steel connecting parts in comparison to the tension rods, as well as the mounting orientation of the tension rods together with their associated fork connectors. The results show that a decrease in the surface curvature and/or an increase in the mass concentration of the steel components lead to a lower heating rate of the steel. Moreover, the performance of the intumescent coating on tension rod systems is influenced by the mounting orientation of the steel components. T2 - 10th International Conference on Structures in Fire CY - Belfast, UK DA - 06.06.2018 KW - Steel KW - Tension rod system KW - Intumescent fire protection coating KW - Reactive fire protection system KW - Real-scale fire test PY - 2018 SN - 978-1-85923-274-3 SP - 649 EP - 654 PB - Ulster University CY - Belfast AN - OPUS4-45152 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Pötzsch, Sina A1 - Krüger, Simone A1 - Sklorz, Christian A1 - Borch, Jörg A1 - Hilse, Thilo A1 - Otremba, Frank T1 - The fire resistance of lightweight composite tanks depending on fire protection systems N2 - To save weight and resources lightweight tanks with complex geometries made of glass-fibre reinforced plastics (GFRP) are a promising innovation for the transportation of dangerous goods. To realise the use of polymer tanks for such applications, their fire safety must be guaranteed. This paper presents solutions to protect fibre-reinforced plastic tanks from fire. The fire resistance of six GFRP tanks with different fire protection systems was tested in an outdoor full-scale fire test facility according to the regulation stipulated in the ADR (European agreement concerning the national carriage of dangerous goods by road). All tanks feature a complex geometry and a holding capacity of 1100 litres. The fire protection systems are composed of specialised resins as well as two intumescent coatings. All systems had a protective impact. The best results were achieved by the epoxy based intumescent coating, which was able to prolong the time needed to reach 150 °C inside the tank by 20 min. The emergence of a temperature holding point inside the tank due to condensation effects was observed at temperatures around 100 °C. KW - Fire safety composite tanks PY - 2018 UR - https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0379711218301644 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2018.08.007 SN - 0379-7112 SN - 1873-7226 VL - 100 SP - 118 EP - 127 PB - Elsevier Ltd. AN - OPUS4-45697 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - GEN A1 - Carraba, L. A1 - Gluth, Gregor A1 - Pirskawetz, Stephan A1 - Krüger, Simone A1 - Bignozzi, M.C. ED - Falikman, V. ED - Realfonzo, R. ED - Coppola, L. ED - Hajek, P. ED - Riva, R. T1 - Fly ash-based lightweight geopolymer mortars for fire protection N2 - The present study aims to investigate the use of geopolymer mortars as passive fire protection system for steel structures. Coal fly ashes were used as aluminosilicate source and perlite was employed as aggregate to obtain a lightweight system. In addition, a geopolymer mortar containing quartz aggregate was produced for comparison. The geopolymer mortars were applied on stainless steel plates and exposed to both, cellulosic and hydrocarbon standard fire curves, according to ISO 834-1 and EN 1363-2, respectively. Acoustic emission measurements were conducted to analyze cracking phenomena during the high temperature exposure. The resulting temperature-time curves showed that the investigated system is effective in retarding the temperature rise of the steel plates. When the cellulosic fire curve was applied, a 20 mm [0.79 in.] thick layer of lightweight geopolymer mortar protected the steel substrate from reaching the critical temperature of 500 °C [932 °F] for at least 30 minutes, avoiding the rapid decrease of its mechanical properties and thus representing an important safety measure against accidental fires. No spalling phenomena on heating were detected; however, significant cracking was observed on cooling. KW - Alkali-activated materials KW - Geopolymers KW - Fire protection KW - Fire proofing KW - Acoustic emission PY - 2018 SN - 978-1-64195-022-0 VL - 326 SP - 26.1 EP - 26.10 PB - American Concrete Institute CY - Farmington Hills AN - OPUS4-46154 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Tschirschwitz, Rico A1 - Krentel, Daniel A1 - Kluge, Martin A1 - Askar, Enis A1 - Habib, Abdel Karim A1 - Kohlhoff, Harald A1 - Krüger, Simone A1 - Neumann, Patrick P. A1 - Rudolph, Michael A1 - Schoppa, André A1 - Storm, Sven-Uwe A1 - Szczepaniak, Mariusz T1 - Experimental investigation of consequences of LPG vehicle tank failure under fire conditions N2 - In case of a vehicle fire, an installed LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) tank with a malfunctioning safety device poses severe hazards. To investigate the consequences in case of tank failure, we conducted 16 tests with toroidal shaped LPG vehicle tanks. Three tanks were used for a Hydraulic Burst Test under standard conditions. Another three tanks were equipped with a statutory safety device and were subjected to a gasoline pool fire. The safety device prevented tank failure, as intended. To generate a statistically valid dataset on tank failure, ten tanks without safety devices were exposed to a gasoline pool fire. Five tanks were filled to a level of 20 %; the re-maining five were filled to a level of 100 %. In order to gain information on the heating process, three tem-perature readings at the tank surface, and three nearby flame temperatures were recorded. At distances of l = (7; 9; 11) m to the tank, the overpressure of the shock wave induced by the tank failure and the unsteady tem-peratures were measured. All ten tanks failed within a time of t < 5 min in a BLEVE (boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion). Seven of these resulted directly in a catastrophic failure. The other three resulted in partial failure followed by catastrophic failure. A near field overpressure at a distance of l = 7 m of up to p = 0.27 bar was measured. All ten tests showed massive fragmentation of the tank mantle. In total, 50 fragments were found. These 50 fragments make-up 88.6 % of the original tank mass. Each fragment was georeferenced and weighed. Fragment throwing distances of l > 250 m occurred. For the tanks with a fill level of 20 %, the average number of fragments was twice as high as it was for the tanks that were filled completely. KW - Blast wave KW - BLEVE KW - Consequences KW - Explosion KW - LPG PY - 2018 UR - https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1XnFv_Ld32ewKu DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jlp.2018.09.006 SN - 0950-4230 VL - 56 SP - 278 EP - 288 PB - Elsevier CY - Kidlington - Oxford AN - OPUS4-46238 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Kirner, Sabrina V. A1 - Slachciak, Nadine A1 - Elert, Anna Maria A1 - Griepentrog, Michael A1 - Fischer, Daniel A1 - Hertwig, Andreas A1 - Sahre, Mario A1 - Dörfel, Ilona A1 - Sturm, Heinz A1 - Pentzien, Simone A1 - Koter, Robert A1 - Spaltmann, Dirk A1 - Krüger, Jörg A1 - Bonse, Jörn T1 - Tribological performance of titanium samples oxidized by fs-laser radiation, thermal heating, or electrochemical anodization N2 - Commercial grade-1 titanium samples (Ti, 99.6%) were treated using three alternative methods, (i) femtosecond laser processing, (ii) thermal heat treatment, and (iii) electrochemical anodization, respectively, resulting in the formation of differently conditioned superficial titanium oxide layers. The laser processing (i) was carried out by a Ti:sapphire laser (pulse duration 30 fs, central wavelength 790 nm, pulse repetition rate 1 kHz) in a regime of generating laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS). The experimental conditions (laser fluence, spatial spot overlap) were optimized in a sample-scanning setup for the processing of several square-millimeters large surface areas covered homogeneously by these nanostructures. The differently oxidized titanium surfaces were characterized by optical microscopy, micro Raman spectroscopy, variable angle spectroscopic ellipsometry, and instrumented indentation testing. The tribological performance was characterized in the regime of mixed friction by reciprocating sliding tests against a sphere of hardened steel in fully formulated engine oil as lubricant. The specific tribological performance of the differently treated surfaces is discussed with respect to possible physical and chemical mechanisms. KW - Femtosecond laser KW - Titanium KW - Oxidation KW - Friction PY - 2018 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-445609 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/s00339-018-1745-8 SN - 0947-8396 SN - 1432-0630 VL - 124 IS - 4 SP - 326, 1 EP - 10 PB - Springer-Verlag AN - OPUS4-44560 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Pötzsch, Sina A1 - Timme, Sebastian A1 - Sklorz, Christian A1 - Skoczowsky, Danilo A1 - Otremba, Frank A1 - Krüger, Simone T1 - Fire protection systems for tanks made of GFRP N2 - The application of lightweight materials for tanks for transportation appears promising. Besides saving weight and therefore transportation costs, new complex geometries that depart from common cylindrical shapes of steel tanks can be manufactured. For transportation of dangerous goods, fire and explosion safety must be maintained to prevent accidents with serious consequences. In this work the fire behavior of lightweight tanks made from glass fiber reinforced plastics (GFRP) with complex geometries is investigated. Pretests on intermediate scale GFRP plates are conducted to identify suitable fire protection systems and surface treatments for composite tanks. The fire resistance is shown to be improved by addition of fire protective coatings and integrated layers. Finally, a complex rectangular GFRP tank with a holding capacity of 1100 liters is fire protected with an intumescent fire coating. The tank is filled up to 80 % with water and burned under an engulfing fully developed fire. It was shown that the intumescent layer could expand before the decomposition of the resin occurred. Furthermore, the adhesion between tank surface and coating was maintained. The structure could withstand a fire for more than 20 min. T2 - ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition (IMECE) 2017 CY - Tampa, Florida, USA DA - 03.11.2017 KW - Lightweight tank KW - Composites in fire KW - GFRP KW - Fire retardants KW - Intumescent layer PY - 2017 SN - 978-0-7918-5849-3 VL - 14 SP - Article UNSP V014T14A017, 1 EP - 6 PB - ASME Press AN - OPUS4-42991 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER -