TY - JOUR A1 - Schiaroli, Alice A1 - Mata, Christian A1 - Scarponi, Giordano Emrys A1 - Habib, Abdel Karim A1 - Kluge, Martin A1 - Ustolin, Federico A1 - Cozzani, Valerio T1 - Digital image processing for the advanced characterization and simulation of experimental fire tests N2 - The fire engulfment of storage tanks of hazardous materials is among the most critical scenarios in hazard assessment of industrial value chains. Laboratory and full-scale experimental trials are used to test the tank performance and integrity in such scenarios. However, strong uncertainties usually affect the actual fire load experienced by the tank, in particular when large-scale experiments are carried out in open test fields. Such uncertainties arise from several factors difficult to control during experimental tests, such as the atmospheric conditions as there is the influence of wind drifts influencing the actual fire engulfment, the flame temperature and the flame dynamic distribution around the target. Consequently, verifying the concordance of an experimental test with standard test criteria and defining accurate boundary conditions in correlated model simulations is challenging. In this study, the development of a novel method for the analysis of fire conditions based on image processing is presented. The approach allows identifying the flame coverage on the target surface during the test and provides an accurate map of the flame distribution on the equipment over time. The approach is tested using experimental data from a full-scale fire test campaign carried out on liquid hydrogen cryogenic tanks. The results prove to be accurate in replicating the experimental temperatures measured on the outer tank shell during the test. The proposed methodology can be used to better understand the results of experimental fire tests and to characterize realistic fire scenarios, also supporting the definition of fire test requirements. Moreover, the approach produces results that can be implemented as advanced space-time-varying boundary conditions in simulation models, improving their accuracy in reproducing real cases. KW - Fire test KW - Digital image processing KW - Flame coverage KW - Storage tank KW - Boundary conditions KW - Fire engulfment PY - 2025 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-636956 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2025.107571 SN - 0957-5820 VL - 201 IS - B SP - 1 EP - 15 PB - Elsevier Ltd. AN - OPUS4-63695 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Habib, Abdel Karim A1 - Kluge, Martin A1 - van Wingerden, Kees T1 - Untersuchung der Freisetzung von Flüssigwasserstoff auf und unter Wasser N2 - In einer Reihe von Experimenten wurden die möglichen Folgen der Freisetzung von verflüssigtem Wasserstoff (LH2) auf, bzw. unter Wasser untersucht. Die Experimente zielten darauf ab, eine unbeabsichtigte Freisetzung von LH2 (z.B. durch Schlauchabriss) insbesondere bei der Betankung eines Schiffes zu simulieren. Für verflüssigtes Erdgas (LNG) wurden dabei sog. RPT’s (rapid phase transition) nachgewiesen, bei denen die spontane Verdampfung relevante Druckwellen erzeugt. Es kann nicht ausgeschlossen werden, dass RPTs auch im Falle von LH2 möglich sind. Die Versuche wurden auf dem Testareal Wasserstoffsicherheit auf dem Testgelände Technische Sicherheit der Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM-TTS) in Horstwalde, im Rahmen einer Forschungskooperation zwischen der BAM und Gexcon im Rahmen des SH2IFT-Programms durchgeführt. Die LH2-Freisetzungen erfolgten direkt aus einem LH2-Tanklastwagen über eine lange, flexible, vakuumisolierte Transferleitung. Während die Freisetzung oberhalb und unterhalb der Wasseroberfläche jeweils vertikal orientiert war, wurde bei der Unterwasserfreisetzung zusätzlich eine horizontale Ausströmung, parallel zur Wasseroberfläche realisiert. Zur Bestimmung des Massenstromes, wurde ein Wägesystem unter dem Tankwagen eingesetzt. Spezielle Drucksensoren wurden verwendet, um die durch die Freisetzungsvorgänge erzeugten Stoßwellen sowohl im Wasser als auch in der Luft zu messen. Die Gaskonzentrationen über dem Wasserbecken wurden an verschiedenen Positionen gemessen. Hochgeschwindigkeits-, Infrarot- (IR) und normale Kameras wurden eingesetzt, um die Phänomenologie der Freisetzung aufzuzeichnen und das Verhalten der Gaswolke im Zeitverlauf zu verfolgen. Neben den fest installierten Systemen an Land, kamen auch Unterwasserkameras sowie eine Drohne mit Normal- und IR-Kameras zum Einsatz. Zwei Wetterstationen wurden zur Messung von Windgeschwindigkeit, Windrichtung, Temperatur und Luftfeuchtigkeit während aller durchgeführten Tests eingesetzt. Des Weiteren kamen Bolometer zur Wärmestrahlungsmessung zum Einsatz. Zwar führten die Freisetzung zu einer hochturbulenten LH2/Wasser Mischzone, jedoch zu keinen nennenswerten Überdrücken durch RPT. Im Gegensatz dazu wurde unerwartet, aber reproduzierbar, eine Zündung der Gaswolke in freier Luft in einiger Entfernung von den Instrumenten und dem Ort der Freisetzung beobachtet. Die daraus resultierenden Gaswolkenexplosionen führten zu relevanten Überdrücken und zur Wärmeabstrahlung in die Umgebung. T2 - Magdeburg-Köthener Brandschutz- und Sicherheitstagung 2024 CY - Magdeburg, Germany DA - 14.03.2024 KW - Flüssigwasserstoff KW - LH2 KW - Freisetzung KW - RPT KW - Gaswolkenexplosion PY - 2024 SN - 978-3-948749-42-2 SP - 127 EP - 136 CY - Magedburg AN - OPUS4-59709 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Bernardy, Christopher A1 - Habib, Abdel Karim A1 - Kluge, Martin A1 - Schalau, Bernd A1 - Kant, Hanjo A1 - Schulze, Marcel A1 - Orchini, Alessandro T1 - Large-scale investigations of the thermal radiation of hydrogen jet flames N2 - For industrial applications dealing with hydrogen, the definition of safety distances and the assessment of possible hazards emanating from releases is mandatory. Since hydrogen is usually stored and transported under pressure, one scenario to be considered is the momentum driven release of hydrogen from a leakage with subsequent ignition. In this scenario, the emitted heat radiation from the resulting jet flame to the surroundings has to be determined to define adequate safety distances. For hydrocarbon flames, different jet flame models are available to assess the hazards resulting from an ignited jet release. Since hydrogen flames differ from hydrocarbon flames in their combustion behavior, it has to be checked if these models are also applicable for hydrogen. To evaluate the accuracy of these models for hydrogen jet flames, tests with a horizontal outlet at large-scale are carried out at the BAM Test Site for Technical Safety (BAM-TTS). Herein, the flame geometry and the heat radiation at defined locations in the surroundings are recorded for varying release parameters such as release pressure (currently up to max. 250 bar), mass flow (up to max. 0.175 kg/s) at an outlet diameter of 30 mm (with an upstream nozzle of 7.7 mm). The challenge here is the characterization of the flame geometry in an open environment and its impact on the thermal radiation. Existing heat radiation data from the literature are mostly based on unsteady outflow conditions. For a better comparability with the steady state jet flame models, the experiments presented here are focused on ensuring a constant mass flow over the release duration (currently 120 s) to obtain a stationary jet flame. In addition, stationary outflow tests with hydrocarbons (methane) were also carried out, which are intended to serve as reference tests for checking flame models based on hydrocarbon data. The comparison of the flame geometry shows that hydrogen jet flames with the same outlet mass flow have a greater flame length (average deviation of 15 %) but a smaller flame diameter than methane jet flames (average deviation of 17 %). Conclusions regarding thermal radiation show that the proportion of total combustion energy emitted as thermal radiation is lower for hydrogen (x_rad= 0.04–0.09) than for methane (x_rad = 0.06–0.1). A comparison of the surface emissive power (SEP) of the jet flame shows a SEP range of 7 kW/m2-15 kW/m2 for hydrogen and 3 kW/m2 - 9,5 kW/m2 for methane. KW - Hydrogen KW - Release KW - Thermal radiation KW - Jet flame KW - Radiant heat fraction PY - 2025 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-622891 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jlp.2024.105491 SN - 1873-3352 VL - 94 SP - 1 EP - 6 PB - Elsevier B.V. AN - OPUS4-62289 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Bernardy, Christopher A1 - Habib, Abdel Karim A1 - Kluge, Martin A1 - Schalau, Bernd A1 - Schulze, Marcel A1 - Kant, Hanjo A1 - Orchini, Alessandro ED - Di Benedetto, Almerinda ED - Portarapillo, Maria T1 - Investigation of the thermal radiation from hydrogen jet flames N2 - For industrial applications dealing with hydrogen, the definition of safety distances and the assessment of possible hazards emanating from releases is mandatory. Since hydrogen is usually stored and transported under pressure, one scenario to be considered is the momentum driven release of hydrogen from a leakage with subsequent ignition. In this scenario, the emitted heat radiation from the resulting jet flame to the surroundings has to be determined to define adequate safety distances. For hydrocarbon flames, different jet flame models are available to assess the hazards resulting from an ignited jet release. Since hydrogen flames differ from hydrocarbon flames in their combustion behavior, it has to be checked if these models are also applicable for hydrogen. To evaluate the accuracy of these models for hydrogen jet flames, tests at real-scale are carried out at the BAM Test Site for Technical Safety (BAM-TTS). Herein, the flame geometry and the heat radiation at defined locations in the surroundings are recorded for varying release parameters such as leakage diameter (currently up to 30 mm), release pressure (currently up to max. 250 bar) and mass flow (up to max. 0.5 kg/s). The challenge here is the characterization of the flame geometry in an open environment and its impact on the thermal radiation. Existing heat radiation data from the literature are mostly based on unsteady outflow conditions. For a better comparability with the steady state jet flame models, the experiments presented here are focused on ensuring a constant mass flow over the release duration to obtain a (quasi) stationary jet flame. In addition, stationary outflow tests with hydrocarbons (methane) were also carried out, which are intended to serve as reference tests for checking flame models based on hydrocarbon data. T2 - 15th International Symposium on Hazards, Prevention and Mitigation of Industrial Explosions (ISHPMIE) CY - Neaples, Italy DA - 10.06.2024 KW - Hydrogen KW - Release KW - Jet flame KW - Thermal radiation PY - 2024 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-605107 DO - https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.12515710 VL - 2024 SP - 1322 EP - 1333 PB - Zenodo CY - Geneva AN - OPUS4-60510 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Bernardy, Christopher A1 - Habib, Abdel Karim A1 - Kluge, Martin A1 - Schalau, Bernd A1 - Kant, Hanjo A1 - Schulze, Marcel A1 - Orchini, Alessandro ED - Nabizada, A. ED - Dechany, A. ED - B. Carré, B. ED - Stendardo, E. ED - Lappa, F. ED - Vanlaere, J. ED - Mendoza, M.J. ED - Dejonghe, M. ED - Daese, M. ED - Namazifard, N. ED - Jacops, R. ED - Jottrand, S. ED - Pahlavan, S. T1 - Real scale safety investigations of hydrogen jet flames at high pressure N2 - In order to reduce the human footprint of CO2 emissions and limit global warming effects hydrogen combustion is becoming increasingly important. To enable fuel cells and gas turbines to operates this carbon free fuel, unprecedently large amounts of hydrogen need to be produced and safely transported and stored. The investigation of the effects of accidents involving hydrogen is therefore becoming of outmost importance. Since hydrogen is usually stored and transported under pressure, one scenario to be considered is the release of hydrogen from a leakage with subsequent ignition. The resulting jet flame must be characterized with respect to the thermal radiation emitted into the environment to define safety regulations. Various models that characterize the resulting flame shape and radiation already exist in the literature, but these are mainly based on empirical data from hydrocarbon jet flames.[1-4] To verify these models, a H2 Jet Flame project conducted at BAM, is investigating the safety of momentum driven hydrogen jet flames. For this purpose, large-scale tests are carried out at the Test Site Technical Safety (BAM-TTS). The object of the investigations is to assess the effects of real scale release scenarios regarding flame geometry and the thermal radiation emitted. Parameters such as release angle, leakage diameter (currently 1 mm to 10 mm), pressure (currently up to max. 250 bar) and mass flow (up to max. 0.5 kg/s) are varied. In addition, influences such as the type of ignition, ignition location as well as delayed ignition can also be investigated. The gained knowledge will be compared with existing jet flame models, to validate these and identify a possible need for further development. In particular, the focus will be laid on the thermal radiation of hydrogen flames. The challenge here is the visualization and characterization of the flame geometry in an open environment. Visualization is performed using infrared (IR) camera systems from at least two viewing angles. Measurements of the heat radiation of jet flames, which can be found in the literature, are mostly based on unsteady outflow conditions. The experimental setup used here allows for the generation of a steady-state outflow for several minutes and thus a direct comparability with existing (steady-state) models. Furthermore, the tests can be carried out for comparative measurements with hydrocarbons (methane, etc.) as well as mixtures of hydrogen and hydrocarbons. T2 - European PhD Hydrogen Conference 2024 (EPHyC2024) CY - Gent, Belgium DA - 20.03.2024 KW - Thermal radiation KW - Release KW - Hydrogen KW - Jet flame PY - 2024 SP - 551 EP - 556 AN - OPUS4-59910 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - van Wingerden, K. A1 - Kluge, Martin A1 - Habib, Abdel Karim A1 - Skarsvag, H. L. A1 - Ustolin, F. A1 - Paltrinieri, N. A1 - Odsaeter, L. H. ED - Pierucci, S. ED - Klemes, J. J. T1 - Experimental Investigation into the Consequences of Release of Liquified Hydrogen onto and under Water N2 - Large-scale experiments have been performed to investigate the possible consequences of realistic amounts of liquified hydrogen (LH2) encountering water. The experiments aimed at simulating an accidental release of LH2 onto water, for instance during the fuelling of a ship. For liquified natural gas (LNG), it has been demonstrated that physical explosions may occur when it is spilled onto water. These phenomena are referred as rapid phase transitions (RPTs). It cannot be excluded that RPTs are also possible in the case of LH2. The tests were performed at the Test Site Technical Safety of the Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und –prüfung (BAM) in Horstwalde, Germany. The tests were performed in a 10 m x 10 x 1.5 m basin filled with water. LH2 releases of up to about 1 kg/s were established releasing directly from a trailer carrying LH2. The releases occurred from a height of 50 cm above the water surface pointing downwards, 30 cm under the water surface pointing downwards and 30 cm under the water surface pointed along the water surface. All release configurations resulted in a very chaotic LH2-water mixing zone, causing considerable evaporation and resulting in minor over pressures. No RPTs were observed. The main phenomenon to be observed is, however, an ignition of the released gas cloud resulting in significant blast wave overpressures and heat radiation to the surroundings. The ignition occurred in all under-water releases and in about 90 % of the releases above the water surface. T2 - 17th EFCE International Symposium on Loss Prevention and Safety Promotion in Process Industries CY - Prague, Czech Rebpublic DA - 05.06.2022 KW - Liquid Hydrogen KW - LH2 KW - Release KW - RPT KW - Rapid Phase Transition PY - 2022 DO - https://doi.org/10.3303/CET2290091 SN - 2283-9216 VL - 90 SP - 541 EP - 546 PB - AIDIC CY - Milano AN - OPUS4-55324 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - van Wingerden, K. A1 - Kluge, Martin A1 - Habib, Abdel Karim A1 - Ustolin, F. A1 - Paltrinieri, N. ED - Pierucci, S. ED - Klemes, J. J. T1 - Medium-scale tests to investigate the possibility and effects of BLEVEs of storage vessels containing liquified hydrogen N2 - Experiments have been performed to determine the consequences of a storage vessel containing liquified hydrogen (LH2) is engulfed by a fire. The tests were performed at the Test Site Technical Safety of the Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und –prüfung (BAM) in Germany within a research cooperation between BAM and Gexcon as part of the SH2IFT program. Three tests were performed using double-walled vacuum insulated vessels of 1 m3 volume varying the orientation of the vessel and the effect of the insulation material used (perlite or multi-layer insulation (MLI)). The degree of filling of the vessel was approximately 35 % in each of the tests performed. The fire load was provided by a propane fed burner positioned under the storage vessel and designed to give a homogeneous fire load. In one of the tests a rupture of the storage vessel occurred causing a blast, a fireball and fragments. Apart from measuring these consequences, the conditions in the vessel (e.g. temperatures and pressure) during the heating process were monitored in all three tests. The work described was undertaken as part of the project Safe Hydrogen fuel handling and Use for Efficient Implementation (SH2IFT). T2 - 17th EFCE International Symposium on Loss Prevention and Safety Promotion in Process Industries CY - Prague, Czech Republic DA - 05.06.2022 KW - Liquid hydrogen KW - LH2 KW - BLEVE KW - Cryogenic tank PY - 2022 DO - https://doi.org/10.3303/CET2290092 SN - 2283-9216 VL - 90 SP - 547 EP - 552 PB - AIDIC CY - Milano AN - OPUS4-55323 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kluge, Martin A1 - Habib, Abdel Karim A1 - van Wingerden, Kees ED - Beyer, Michael ED - Lucassen, Arnas T1 - Large-scale tests to investigate the consequences of exposing cryogenic storage vessels containing liquid hydrogen to a fire load N2 - Large Scale Experiments have been performed to determine whether a storage vessel containing liquid hydrogen (LH2) and caught in a fire engulfing the vessel can result in a BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion) and if so its consequences. The tests were performed at the Test Site Technical Safety of the Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und –prüfung (BAM) in Germany at the Hydrogen Test Area (H2TA) within a research cooperation between BAM and Gexcon as part of the SH2IFT program. Three tests were performed using double-walled vacuum insulated vessels of 1 m3 volume. The cylindrical Vessels differed in orientation (horizontal or vertical) and the insulation material used (perlite or multi-layer insulation (MLI)). The degree of filling of the vessels was approximately 35-40 % in each of the tests performed. The fire load was provided by a propane fed burner-system positioned under the storage vessel and designed to give a homogeneous fire load. The conditions in the vessel (temperatures and pressure) as well as external effects (heat radiation, blast waves, flame ball development and fragmentation) were measured. All vessels were equipped with K-type thermocouples at several locations at the inner and outer vessel shell. The pressure inside the inner vessel and in the space between the inner and outer vessels (vacuum pressure) was measured. Bolometers were used to measure the heat radiation generated by both the propane fire and that generated by a possible fireball/BLEVE. To measure blast generated by the vessel burst/BLEVEs blast pencils were positioned at up to three locations. Further several cameras were used to monitor the events: normal cameras, infrared (IR)-cameras, high-speed cameras also on board of an UAV. Two of these vessels, a horizontal and a vertical vessel both insulated with perlite withstood the fire loading for 1 hour 20 minutes and 4 hours respectively without catastrophic failure. A horizontal vessel insulated with MLI failed by bursting after 1 hour and 6 minutes resulting in a fireball, fragments, and blast wave. T2 - 14th International Symposium on Hazards, Prevention and Mitigation of Industrial Explosions CY - Braunschweig, Germany DA - 11.07.2022 KW - Prevention KW - Industrial explosions KW - BLEVE KW - LH2 KW - Fire ball KW - Fragments PY - 2022 DO - https://doi.org/10.7795/810.20221124 SP - 168 EP - 181 AN - OPUS4-59440 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kluge, Martin A1 - Habib, Abdel Karim A1 - van Wingerden, Kees T1 - Unterfeuerung von Flüssigwassersttofftanks - Topologie eines kritischen Behälterversagens N2 - In einer Versuchsreihe im Realmaßstab wurden drei Flüssigwasserstofftanks (LH2) unterfeuert. Hierbei sollte unter anderem geklärt werden, ob es, analog zu druckverflüssigten Gasen, zu einem BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Cloud Explosion) kommen kann. Die Experimente wurden auf dem Testareal Wasserstoffsicherheit des Testgeländes Technische Sicherheit der Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM-TTS) im Rahmen einer Forschungskooperation zwischen der BAM und Gexcon, als Teil des SH2IFT-Programms durchgeführt. Es handelte sich um doppelwandige, vakuumisolierte Tanks von 1 m³ Volumen. Die zylindrischen Tanks unterschieden sich durch ihre Ausrichtung (horizontal oder vertikal) und das verwendete Isoliermaterial (Perlit oder Mehrschichtisolierung (MLI). Der Füllgrad der Tanks betrug bei jedem der durchgeführten Tests etwa 35-40 %. Die Brandlast wurde homogen durch ein propangasbetriebenes Brennersystem erzeugt. Gemessen wurden die Bedingungen im Behälter (Temperaturen und Druck) sowie äußere Randbedingungen und Auswirkungen beim Versagen (Wärmestrahlung, Druckwellen, Flammenballentwicklung und Fragmentierung). Mit Bolometern wurde die Wärmestrahlung gemessen, die sowohl durch das Propanfeuer als auch durch einen möglichen Feuerball/BLEVE erzeugt wurde. Zur Messung der durch das Bersten von Behältern/BLEVEs erzeugten Druckwellen wurden sog. Pencil-Probes verwendet. Des Weiteren wurden mehrere Kameras zur Überwachung der Experimente eingesetzt: Normalbildkameras, Infrarot (IR)-Kameras und Hochgeschwindigkeitskameras, sowohl bodengestützt als auch mittels einer Drohne. Zwei der untersuchten Tanks, ein horizontaler und der vertikale, die beide mit Perlit isoliert waren, hielten der Brandbelastung stand, ohne dass es zu einem Behälterversagen kam. Der mit MLI isolierte horizontale Behälter barst nach 1 Stunde und 6 Minuten und erzeugte dabei einen Feuerball, Trümmerflug und eine Druckwelle. Neben der Beschreibung der Auswirkungen eines kritischen Versagens eines LH2-Tanks sind weitere Ziele der Arbeit die Identifizierung kritischer Behälterzustände sowie die Erstellung eines umfassendes Datensatzes der Trümmer des geborstenen Tanks. Die größten Abstände für kritische Abstände ergaben sich durch Fragmentwurf. Hier sollen 3D-Scans für die Verwendung in CAD und FEM Anwendungen bereitgestellt werden. Umfassende Daten zu den Fragmentwurfweiten, -massen und -positionen wurden bereits publiziert. Damit soll die Voraussetzung geschaffen werden, um vorhandene Wurfweitenmodelle, die bisher nur für einschalige Behälter konzipiert wurden auf ihre Eignung für mehrschalige Behälter zu überprüfen oder mögliche Anpassungen anhand der realen Daten vornehmen zu können. Zudem wurde damit begonnen die nicht geborstenen Tanks zu vermessen und zu zerlegen, um u.a. die Perlit-Schüttung auf Beeinträchtigungen durch den Transport und die Unterfeuerung zu untersuchen. T2 - Magdeburg-Köthener Brandschutz- und Sicherheitstagung 2024 CY - Magdeburg, Germany DA - 14.03.2024 KW - LH2 KW - Flüssigwasserstoff KW - Bleve KW - Tank KW - Bersten KW - Unterfeuerung PY - 2024 SN - 978-3-948749-42-2 SP - 117 EP - 126 CY - Magdeburg AN - OPUS4-59711 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kluge, Martin T1 - Consequences of exposing cryogenic storage vessels containing liquid hydrogen to a fire load N2 - Experiments have been performed to determine whether a storage vessel containing LH2 and caught in a fire engulfing the vessel can result in a BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion) and if so its effects. The tests were performed at the Test Site Technical Safety of the Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und –prüfung (BAM) in Horstwalde, Germany. Three tests were performed using double-walled vacuum insulated vessels of 1 m3 volume. The cylindrical Vessels differed in orientation (horizontal or vertical) and the insulation material used (perlite or multi-layer insulation (MLI)). The degree of filling of the vessels was approximately 35-40 % in each of the tests performed. The fire load was provided by a propane fed burner positioned under the storage vessel and designed to give a homogeneous fire load. The conditions in the vessel (temperatures and pressure) as well as external effects (heat radiation, blast waves, flame ball development and fragmentation) were measured. All vessels were equipped with K-type thermocouples at several locations: inside the inner vessel in the gas phase and the liquid phase, on the inner and outer side of the inner vessel and on the inner and outer side of the outer vessel. The pressure inside the inner vessel (both in liquid, as a level indicator, and gaseous phase), and in the space between the inner and outer vessels (vacuum pressure) was measured. Bolometers were used to measure the heat radiation generated by both the propane fire and that generated by a possible fireball/BLEVE. To measure blast generated by the vessel burst/BLEVEs blast pencils were positioned at three locations in two directions. Weather conditions were monitored at two weather stations. Further several cameras were used to monitor the events: normal cameras, infrared (IR)-cameras, high-speed cameras also on board of a drone. Two of these vessels, a horizontal and a vertical vessel both insulated with perlite withstood the fire loading for 1 hour 20 minutes and 4 hours respectively without catastrophic failure. A horizontal vessel insulated with MLI failed by bursting after 1 hour and 6 minutes resulting in a fireball, fragments, and blast waves. T2 - 14th International Symposium on Hazards, Prevention, and Mitigation of Industrial Explosions (ISHPMIE) CY - Braunschweig, Germany DA - 11.07.2022 KW - Liquid Hydrogen KW - LH2 KW - BLEVE KW - Cryogenic Tank PY - 2022 AN - OPUS4-55355 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Bernardy, Christopher A1 - Habib, Abdel Karim A1 - Kluge, Martin A1 - Schalau, Bernd A1 - Kant, Hanjo A1 - Schulze, Marcel A1 - Orchini, Alessandro T1 - Sicherheitstechnische Untersuchungen von Wasserstoff Freistrahlflammen bei Hochdruck im Realmaßstab N2 - Wasserstoff als Energieträger gewinnt zunehmend an Bedeutung. Die Untersuchung von Störfallauswirkungen mit Wasserstoff rückt somit stärker in den Fokus. Da Wasserstoff meist unter Druck gelagert und transportiert wird, ist ein zu betrachtendes Szenario die Freisetzung aus einer Leckage mit anschließender Zündung. Die daraus resultierende Freistrahlflamme (Jet Flame) muss hinsichtlich der in die Umgebung emittierten Wärmestrahlung charakterisiert werden. In der Literatur existieren bereits verschiedene Modelle, welche jedoch vermehrt auf Daten aus Kohlenwasserstoffflammen mit geringem Impuls basieren. Zur Überprüfung dieser Modelle wird im Zuge des BAM internen H2 Jet Flame Projektes die sicherheitstechnische Untersuchung von impulsbehafteten Wasserstoff Freistrahlflammen vorgenommen. Hierfür finden Versuche im Realmaßstab auf dem Testgelände Technische Sicherheit der BAM (BAM-TTS) statt. Gegenstand der Untersuchungen ist die Beurteilung der Auswirkungen von realistischen Freisetzungsszenarien hinsichtlich der Flammengeometrie und der freigesetzten Wärmestrahlung. Dabei werden Parameter wie Freisetzungswinkel, Leckagedurchmesser (z.Zt. 1 mm bis 10 mm), Druck (z.Zt. bis max. 250 bar) und Massenstrom (bis max. 0,5 kg/s) variiert. Zusätzlich können auch Einflüsse wie Art der Zündung, Zündort sowie Zündung mit zeitlichem Verzug untersucht werden. Gewonnene Erkenntnisse werden mit den Ergebnissen bereits vorhandener Modelle verglichen und diese im Bedarfsfall weiterentwickelt. Insbesondere wird der Fokus auf die Modellierung der freigesetzten Wärmestrahlung von Wasserstoffflammen gelegt. Herausforderung dabei stellt die IR-Vermessung und Modellierung von Sichtmodellen der Flammen dar. Die Visualisierung der Flammengeometrie wird mit Hilfe mehrerer Infrarot Kamerasystemen (aus mindestens zwei Blickwinkeln) vorgenommen. Bisherige Messungen, die in der Literatur zu finden sind, basieren meist auf instationären Auströmbedingungen. Der hier verwendete Versuchsaufbau ermöglicht ein stationäres Ausströmen für mehrere Minuten und somit eine direkte Vergleichbarkeit mit den existierenden (stationären) Modellen. Weiterhin ist der Versuchsstand umrüstbar für Vergleichsmessungen mit Kohlenwasserstoffen (Methan etc.) sowie Mischungen aus Wasserstoff und Kohlenwasserstoffen. T2 - Magdeburg-Köthener Brandschutz- und Sicherheitstagung 2024 CY - Magdeburg, Germany DA - 14.03.2024 KW - Wärmestrahlung KW - Wassersoff KW - Freistrahlflamme PY - 2024 SN - 978-3-948749-42-2 SP - 137 EP - 146 CY - Magdeburg AN - OPUS4-59912 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kluge, Martin T1 - Unterfeuerung von Flüssigwasserstofftanks N2 - In einer Versuchsreihe im Realmaßstab wurden drei Flüssigwasserstofftanks (LH2) unterfeuert. Hierbei sollte unter anderem geklärt werden, ob es, analog zu druckverflüssigten Gasen, zu einem BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Cloud Explosion) kommen kann. Die Experimente wurden auf dem Testareal Wasserstoffsicherheit des Testgeländes Technische Sicherheit der Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM-TTS) im Rahmen einer Forschungskooperation zwischen der BAM und Gexcon, als Teil des SH2IFT-Programms durchgeführt. Es handelte sich um doppelwandige, vakuumisolierte Tanks von 1 m³ Volumen. Die zylindrischen Tanks unterschieden sich durch ihre Ausrichtung (horizontal oder vertikal) und das verwendete Isoliermaterial (Perlit oder Mehrschichtisolierung (MLI). Der Füllgrad der Tanks betrug bei jedem der durchgeführten Tests etwa 35-40 %. Die Brandlast wurde homogen durch ein propangasbetriebenes Brennersystem erzeugt. Gemessen wurden die Bedingungen im Behälter (Temperaturen und Druck) sowie äußere Randbedingungen und Auswirkungen beim Versagen (Wärmestrahlung, Druckwellen, Flammenballentwicklung und Fragmentierung). Mit Bolometern wurde die Wärmestrahlung gemessen, die sowohl durch das Propanfeuer als auch durch einen möglichen Feuerball/BLEVE erzeugt wurde. Zur Messung der durch das Bersten von Behältern/BLEVEs erzeugten Druckwellen wurden sog. Pencil-Probes verwendet. Des Weiteren wurden mehrere Kameras zur Überwachung der Experimente eingesetzt: Normalbildkameras, Infrarot (IR)-Kameras und Hochgeschwindigkeitskameras, sowohl bodengestützt als auch mittels einer Drohne. Zwei der untersuchten Tanks, ein horizontaler und der vertikale, die beide mit Perlit isoliert waren, hielten der Brandbelastung stand, ohne dass es zu einem Behälterversagen kam. Der mit MLI isolierte horizontale Behälter barst nach 1 Stunde und 6 Minuten und erzeugte dabei einen Feuerball, Trümmerflug und eine Druckwelle. Neben der Beschreibung der Auswirkungen eines kritischen Versagens eines LH2-Tanks sind weitere Ziele der Arbeit die Identifizierung kritischer Behälterzustände sowie die Erstellung eines umfassendes Datensatzes der Trümmer des geborstenen Tanks. Die größten Abstände für kritische Abstände ergaben sich durch Fragmentwurf. Hier sollen 3D-Scans für die Verwendung in CAD und FEM Anwendungen bereitgestellt werden. Umfassende Daten zu den Fragmentwurfweiten, - massen und -positionen wurden bereits publiziert. Damit soll die Voraussetzung geschaffen werden, um vorhandene Wurfweitenmodelle, die bisher nur für einschalige Behälter konzipiert wurden auf ihre Eignung für mehrschalige Behälter zu überprüfen oder mögliche Anpassungen anhand der realen Daten vornehmen zu können. Zudem wurde damit begonnen die nicht geborstenen Tanks zu vermessen und zu zerlegen, um u.a. die Perlit-Schüttung auf Beeinträchtigungen durch den Transport und die Unterfeuerung zu untersuchen. T2 - Magdeburg-Köthener Brandschutz- und Sicherheitstagung 2024 CY - Magdeburg, Germany DA - 14.03.2024 KW - LH2 KW - BLEVE KW - Bersten KW - Tank KW - Unterfeuerung PY - 2024 AN - OPUS4-59715 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Tschirschwitz, Rico A1 - Krentel, Daniel A1 - Kluge, Martin T1 - Druckgasbehälter im Feuer - Auswirkungen im Versagensfall N2 - Es wurden insgesamt 57 Einzelversuche zum Versagen von Druckgasbehältern durchgeführt. Untersucht wurden dabei 11-kg-Propangasflaschen, PKW-Radmuldentanks für LPG sowie CNG-Tanks vom Typ III (Compositetanks mit Aluminiumliner) und Typ IV (Compositetanks mit Polymerliner). Mit 18 hydraulischen Berstversuchen wurde das Versagensverhalten unter kalten Bedingungen charakterisiert. In 39 Unterfeuerungsversuchen mit den gefüllten LPG- und CNG-Tanks, davon 36 mit Tanks ohne Sicherheitseinrichtung, wurde das Behälterversagen durch Brandbeaufschlagung untersucht. Neben verschiedenen Behältermanteltemperaturen und dem Behälterinnendruck wurde auch die Temperatur des gespeicherten Mediums dokumentiert. Dadurch war es möglich, genau zu dokumen-tieren, unter welchen Bedingungen und bei welchem Zustand der Behälter versagt hat. In einem Großteil der Unterfeuerungsversuche mit Behältern ohne Sicherheitseinrichtungen kam es zur Bildung eines Feuerballs, einer massiven Druck- und Temperaturwirkung auf den Nahbereich sowie einer Vielzahl von Fragmenten im Nah- und Fernbereich. In einer Entfernung von l = 7 m wurden Überdrücke von bis zu p = 0,41 bar gemessen. In 30 Unterfeuerungsversuchen kam es zur Fragmentierung des Behälters. Dabei konnten 159 Fragmente mit Wurfweite und Masse dokumentiert werden. Die dabei maximal festgestellte Wurfweite eines Fragments lag bei l = 311 m. T2 - 15. BAM-PTB-Kolloquium zur chemischen und physikalischen Sicherheitstechnik CY - Brunswick, Germany DA - 21.05.2019 KW - Behälterversagen KW - Druckgasbehälter KW - Propan KW - LPG KW - CNG PY - 2020 DO - https://doi.org/10.7795/310.20200199 SN - 0030-834X VL - 130 IS - 1 SP - 55 EP - 70 AN - OPUS4-50570 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Tamburini, Federica A1 - Kluge, Martin A1 - Habib, Abdel Karim A1 - Ustolin, Federico A1 - Cozzani, Valerio A1 - Paltrinieri, Nicola T1 - Exploring experimental tests concerning liquid hydrogen releases N2 - In recent years, the adoption of liquid hydrogen (LH2) has increased significantly in industrial and transport applications, driven by its low carbon footprint, thereby aiding the fight against global warming. Additionally, its high volumetric energy density, compared to gaseous or compressed hydrogen, enhances hydrogen storage capabilities. However, safety remains a major concern due to its physical-chemical properties and inherent hazardous characteristics, especially in the event of spillage scenarios. Therefore, to better understand the consequences of LH2 releases onto or into water, large-scale experimental tests were conducted by Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) within the Safe Hydrogen Fuel Handling and Use for Efficient Implementation (SH2IFT) project at the Test Site Technical Safety of BAM, comprising 75 single spill events at varied release rates and orientations. While the rapid phase transition (RPT) phenomenon was not observed, selfignition of the hydrogen-air cloud occurred, accompanied by blast wave overpressure and heat radiation, without a discernible ignition source. These findings emphasize the need for further investigation into LH2 safety. Leveraging experimental data for real-world applications provides insights into safe LH2 infrastructure implementation, laying foundational knowledge for addressing safety challenges and advancing LH2 technology. KW - Liquid Hydrogen KW - Rapid phase transition KW - Ignition KW - Safety PY - 2024 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-618644 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2024.11.014 SN - 0957-5820 VL - 192 SP - 1330 EP - 1343 PB - Elsevier CY - Amsterdam AN - OPUS4-61864 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kluge, Martin A1 - Habib, Abdel Karim T1 - Consequences of exposing cryogenic storage vessels containing liquid hydrogen to a fire load N2 - Within a research cooperation between BAM and Gexcon as part of the SH2IFT program, large scale experiments have been performed at the Test Site Technical Safety of the Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und –prüfung (BAM) to determine the hazards emerging from a vacuum insulated cryogenic storage vessel containing liquified hydrogen (LH2) is caught in a fire engulfing it. T2 - ELVHYS, 2nd Safety Workshop CY - Online meeting DA - 29.11.2023 KW - BLEVE KW - Cryoegenic storage vessel KW - Liquified hydrogen PY - 2023 AN - OPUS4-59021 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Habib, Abdel Karim A1 - Kluge, Martin A1 - van Wingerden, Kees ED - Beyer, Michael ED - Lucassen, Arnas T1 - Experimental investigation into the consequences of release of liquified hydrogen onto and under water N2 - Large-scale experiments have been performed to investigate the possible consequences of realistic amounts of liquified hydrogen (LH2) encountering water. The experiments aimed at simulating an accidental release of LH2 during especially the fuelling of a ship. For liquified natural gas (LNG) it has been demonstrated that when spilled onto water the evaporation rate can be that high that physical explosions occur which are referred as rapid phase transitions (RPTs). It cannot be excluded that RPTs are also possible in the case of LH2. The tests were performed in a 10 m x 10 m x 1.5 m basin filled with water, at the Test Site Technical Safety of the Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und –prüfung (BAM) in Horstwalde, Germany within a research cooperation between BAM and Gexcon as part of the SH2IFT program. LH2 releases were established releasing directly from a trailer carrying LH2 through a long flexible double vacuum insulated transfer line. The releases occurred from a height of 50 cm above and 30 cm under the water surface both pointing downwards and 30 cm under the water surface pointing along the water surface too. The release rate was determined based on the weight loss rate of the road tanker which was placed onto load cells. Special blast pressure sensors were used to measure the shock waves generated by the release processes both in the water and in the air. At several locations the gas concentration was measured. Heat radiation was measured at 3 distances from the point of release. High speed, Infrared (IR) and normal cameras were used to record events and to follow the gas cloud behaviour in time. This includes cameras mounted on a UAV and underwater cameras. Two weather stations were used to measure wind speed, wind direction, temperature and humidity during all tests performed. All investigated release configurations resulted in a very chaotic LH2-water mixing zone, causing considerable evaporation but only minor over pressures. The main phenomenon observed was an ignition of the released gas cloud, resulting in significant blast wave overpressures and heat radiation to the surroundings. The location of the ignition occurred in free air at some distance from the instrumentation and release location. T2 - 14th International Symposium on Hazards, Prevention and Mitigation of Industrial Explosions (ISHPMIE 2022) CY - Braunschweig, Germany DA - 11.07.2022 KW - LH2 KW - RPT KW - Release KW - Gas cloud explosion KW - Heat radiation PY - 2022 SP - 182 EP - 196 AN - OPUS4-59441 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Bernardy, Christopher A1 - Habib, Abdel Karim A1 - Kluge, Martin A1 - Orchini, A. ED - Fabiano, Bruno ED - Cozzani, Valerio T1 - Heat Radiation Emanating from Hydrogen and Methane Jet Fires N2 - Modelling the heat radiation emanating from jet flames for initial hazard assessment purposes is generally done using simple, steady-state, approaches that give a quick estimation useful for impact analysis. Although nowadays CFD can be used to simulate this phenomenon in detail, it is still very demanding in computational power and time, and generally not all required boundary conditions to achieve a reliable result are known. Therefore, even today simpler empirical approaches are still widely used for consequence analysis. Hydrogen is becoming increasingly important as renewable energy carrier resulting in an increasing demand of “hydrogen-approved” models. Since the aforenamed models were mainly developed based on data from hydrocarbon jet flame experiments, it has to be verified if they also apply to hydrogen jet flames. To this purpose, real-scale tests are carried out at the BAM Test Site Technical Safety (BAM-TTS) with the aim to assess the flame geometry and the emitted thermal radiation of hydrogen and methane jet flames. In particular, the focus is laid on the measurement and modelling of the thermal radiation. Existing heat radiation data from the literature are mostly based on unsteady outflow conditions. The experimental setup used here allows for the generation of a steady-state outflow and thus a direct comparability with existing (steady-state) models. From these data, an assessment of the applicability of jet flame models to hydrogen jet flames is carried out accounting for their accuracy in predicting heat radiation and possible needs of further development. T2 - 18th EFCE International Symposium on Loss Prevention and Safety Promotion in the Process Industries CY - Bologna, Italy DA - 08.06.2025 KW - Jet Fire KW - Hydrogen KW - Methane KW - Heat radiation PY - 2025 DO - https://doi.org/10.3303/CET25116065 SN - 2283-9216 VL - 116 SP - 385 EP - 390 PB - AIDIC Servizi S.r.l. CY - Italy AN - OPUS4-63698 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Kluge, Martin A1 - Habib, Abdel Karim ED - Fabiano, Bruno ED - Cozzani, Valerio T1 - Cryogenic LH2 Storage Vessels in a Fire N2 - To investigate the hazards emanating from cryogenic LH2 storage Vessels in a fire, experiments have been performed at the Test Site Technical Safety of the Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und –prüfung (BAM), Germany. Three double-walled vacuum insulated vessels of 1 m3 volume, filled to approximately 35-40 Vol.% with LH2 were put in a fire. The cylindrical Vessels differed in orientation (horizontal or vertical) and the insulationmaterial used (perlite or multi-layer insulation (MLI)). The fire load was provided by a propane fed burner-system positioned under the storage vessel and designed to give a homogeneous fire load. During the tests the conditions in the vessel (temperatures and pressure) as well as external effects (heat radiation, blast waves, flame ball development and fragmentation) were measured. Two of these vessels, a horizontal and a vertical vessel both insulated with perlite withstood the fire loading for 1 hour 20 minutes and 4 hours respectively without catastrophic failure, but partly showing leakages. The horizontal vessel insulated with MLI failed by bursting after 1 hour and 6 minutes resulting in a fireball, fragments, and blast wave. The test results as well as the detailed examination of the non-destroyed vessels rose some interesting questions which type of insulation might be better to protect a vessel not only during its normal operation but also under fire loading against a heat flux from the surroundings, as well as to the suitability of cryogenic (safety) equipment under fire loading. T2 - 18th EFCE International Symposium on Loss Prevention and Safety Promotion in the Process Industries CY - Bologna, Italy DA - 08.06.2025 KW - LH2 KW - Cryogenic tank KW - Fire engulfment KW - BLEVE PY - 2025 DO - https://doi.org/10.3303/CET25116130 SN - 2283-9216 VL - 116 SP - 775 EP - 780 PB - AIDIC Servizi S.r.l. CY - Italy AN - OPUS4-63697 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kluge, Martin T1 - Cryogenic LH2 storage vessels in a fire N2 - To investigate the hazards emanating from cryogenic LH2 storage Vessels in a fire, experiments have been performed at the Test Site Technical Safety of the Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und –prüfung (BAM) in Horstwalde, Germany. Three double-walled vacuum insulated vessels of 1 m3 volume, filled to approximately 35-40 Vol.% with LH2 were put in a fire. The cylindrical Vessels differed in orientation (horizontal or vertical) and the insulation material used (perlite or multi-layer insulation (MLI)). The fire load was provided by a propane fed burner-system positioned under the storage vessel and designed to give a homogeneous fire load. During the tests the conditions in the vessel (temperatures and pressure) as well as external effects (heat radiation, blast waves, flame ball development and fragmentation) were measured. The tests showed that the k-type thermocouples used are not suitable for measuring very low temperatures as for example the temperature of the hydrogen liquid phase when using the standard tabled values and conversion functions. An assessment of the measured temperatures could only be done by an own “recalibration” of the thermocouples for the very low temperature range. Bolometers were used to measure the heat radiation generated by a possible fireball/BLEVE. To measure blast generated by the vessel burst/BLEVEs blast pencils were positioned at up to three locations. Further several cameras were used to monitor the events: normal cameras, infrared (IR)-cameras, high-speed cameras also on board of a drone. Two of these vessels, a horizontal and a vertical vessel both insulated with perlite withstood the fire loading for 1 hour 20 minutes and 4 hours respectively without catastrophic failure, but partly showing leakages. The horizontal vessel insulated with MLI failed by bursting after 1 hour and 6 minutes resulting in a fireball, fragments, and blast wave. The test results as well as the detailed examination of the non destroyed vessels rose some interesting questions which type of insulation is better to protect a vessel not only during its normal operation but also under fire loading against a heat flux from the surroundings, as well as to the suitability of cryogenic (safety) equipment under fire loading. T2 - 18th EFCE International Symposium on Loss Prevention and Safety Promotion in the Process Industries CY - Bologna, Italy DA - 08.06.2025 KW - BLEVE KW - LH2 KW - Consequences KW - Cryogenic storage KW - Fire engulfment PY - 2025 AN - OPUS4-63700 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Bradley, Ian A1 - Kluge, Martin A1 - Habib, Abdel Karim A1 - Scarponi, Giordano Emerys T1 - Experimental Study on Thermal Exposure of Pipes to Steady Hydrogen Jet Fire Impingement N2 - Jet fires resulting from the accidental release of pressurized hydrogen represent a critical issue, especially due to their potential to trigger a domino effect. The lack of studies on the characterisation of the conditions experienced by, and response of, structures and process equipment directly engulfed in a hydrogen jet fire is of concern to industry. This work presents a characterisation study of a hydrogen jet fire with respect to the conditions experienced by an engulfed object. The total heat flux, along with its radiative component, was measured for hydrogen mass flow rates ranging from 0.05 to 0.2 kg/s. Heat fluxes exceeding 700 kW/m2 were measured at a location that coincided with the point of jet impact. The maximum radiative fraction measured was 20 % at the back of the tube where the specimen could receive radiation from the majority of the flame plume. It is concluded that conditions within hydrogen jet fires are notably more severe than those in hydrocarbon jet fires (for which a heat flux of 350 kW/m2 is considered high). This suggests that PFP systems should not be automatically assumed to provide protection against hydrogen jet fires without further research or actual test evidence of performance. KW - Hydrogen KW - Jet Fire KW - Fire Protection KW - Pfp PY - 2025 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2025.108017 SN - 0957-5820 VL - 204 SP - 1 EP - 15 PB - Elsevier Ltd. AN - OPUS4-64479 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Bernardy, Christopher A1 - Habib, Abdel Karim A1 - Kluge, Martin A1 - Schalau, Bernd A1 - Kant, Hanjo A1 - Schulze, Marcel A1 - Orchini, Alessandro T1 - Experimental Investigation of Large-Scale Hydrogen Diffusion Jet Flames N2 - Hydrogen is a promising alternative to natural gas in industrial energy applications to limit global warming. However, wide application of hydrogen requires specific safety considerations taking into account that hydrogen is stored and transported under much higher pressure than natural gas. Thus, one scenario to be considered for hazard assessment is a sudden release of hydrogen from a leakage or safety valve and its subsequent ignition. For hydrocarbon flames, various jet flame models are available. However, hydrogen flames significantly differ from hydrocarbon flames in their combustion behavior, so that the applicability of these models to hydrogen has to be investigated. For that purpose, reals scale tests were carried out at the BAM Test Site Technical Safety. In these tests, the flame geometry and the thermal heat radiation were investigated for a release angle of 90°, for different release pressures (up to 220 bar) and mass flows (up to 0.175 kg/s). Most existing data on thermal radiation are based on unsteady flow conditions and/or still air, whereas the experiments carried out here ensure a constant mass flow under realistic free-field conditions (with wind influence). This allows a better comparability with the stationary jet flame models and assessment of wind influence on model predictions. A number of parameters such as the surface emissive power and the radiant heat fraction were determined. A detailed comparison of the obtained experimental results with literature radiation models was performed. Based on the investigations, empirical equations for modelling jet flames could be derived. T2 - Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2025 Turbomachinery Technical Conference and Exposition CY - Memphis, Tennessee, USA DA - 16.06.2025 KW - Hydrogen release KW - Radiant heat fraction KW - Thermal radiation KW - Jet flame PY - 2025 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-643401 DO - https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4070012 SN - 0742-4795 VL - 148 IS - 5 SP - 51008-1 EP - 51008-8 PB - ASME International AN - OPUS4-64340 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Bernardy, Christopher A1 - Habib, Abdel Karim A1 - Kluge, Martin A1 - Schalau, Bernd A1 - Schulze, Marcel A1 - Kant, Hanjo A1 - Orchini, Alessandro ED - Ruggiero, Eric J. T1 - Experimental investigation of large-scale hydrogen diffusion jet flames N2 - Hydrogen is a promising alternative to natural gas in industrial energy applications which would serve the goal of limiting global warming. However, wide application of hydrogen requires specific safety considerations taking into account that hydrogen is stored and transported under much higher pressure than natural gas. Thus, one scenario to be considered for hazard assessment is a sudden release of hydrogen from a leakage or safety valve and its subsequent ignition. For hydrocarbon flames, various jet flame models are available. However, hydrogen flames significantly differ from hydrocarbon flames in their combustion behavior, so that the applicability of these models to hydrogen has to be investigated. For that purpose, reals scale tests were carried out at the BAM Test Site Technical Safety. In addition, hydrocarbon jet flames (methane) were investigated. In these tests, the flame geometry and the thermal heat radiation were investigated for a release angle of 90°, for different release pressures (up to 220 bar) and mass flows (up to 0.175 kg/s). While existing heat radiation data from the literature are mostly based on unsteady outflow conditions and/or releases in still air, the experiments presented here are focused on ensuring a constant mass flow over the release duration under realistic free field conditions (with wind influence). This allows a better comparability with the stationary jet flame models and assessment of wind influence on model predictions. A number of parameters such as the surface emissive power of the jet flame and the radiant heat fraction were determined. A detailed comparison of the obtained experimental results with literature radiation models was performed. Good agreement between experimental and literature data was found for hydrogen whereas significant differences were identified for methane. Based on the investigations, empirical equations for modelling jet flames could be derived. T2 - American Society of Mechanical Engineers - Turbomachinery Technical Conference & Exposition GT2025 CY - Memphis, TN, USA DA - 16.06.2025 KW - Hydrogen release KW - Jet flame KW - Radiant heat fraction KW - Thermal radiation PY - 2025 SN - 978-0-7918-8877-3 DO - https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2025-FM2 SP - 1 EP - 11 PB - The American Society of Mechanical Engineers CY - Livingston AN - OPUS4-64098 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER -