TY - CONF A1 - Thiede, Tobias A1 - Mishurova, Tatiana A1 - Cabeza, S. A1 - Nadammal, Naresh A1 - Bode, Johannes A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Haberland, C. A1 - Bruno, Giovanni ED - Richard, H. A. T1 - Der Einfluss der Hatch-Länge und der Probenabtrennung von der Bauplatte auf den Eigenspannungszustand in SLM-Bauteilen aus IN718 N2 - Die Schicht-für-Schicht additive Fertigung (AM) in Form des selektiven Laserschmelzens (SLM) bietet einerseits Vorteile bezüglich des Probendesigns, andererseits sind thermische Eigenspannungen (ES) aufgrund des hohen Temperaturgradienten unvermeidbar. Diese Eigenspannungen wurden in zwei SLM-gefertigten Proben aus IN718 zerstörungsfrei mit Neutronenstreuung hinsichtlich der folgenden zwei Einflüsse analysiert: der Einfluss der Hatch-Länge und das Abtrennen des Werkstücks von der Bauplatte. Begleitet wurden die Messungen der Eigenspannungen durch optische Mikroskopie und die taktile Vermessung der Oberfläche. Eine Korrelation zwischen den Eigenspannungen und der Hatch-Länge konnte beobachtet und erklärt werden. T2 - 2. Tagung des DVM-Arbeitskreises Additiv gefertigte Bauteile und Strukturen CY - Berlin, Germany DA - 09.11.2017 KW - IN718 KW - Additive Fertigung KW - Selektives Laserschmelzen KW - Eigenspannungen KW - Neutronenstreuung PY - 2017 SN - 2509-8772 VL - Bericht 402 SP - 137 EP - 146 PB - DVM CY - Berlin AN - OPUS4-42946 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kromm, Arne T1 - Eigenspannungen in additiv gefertigten Bauteilen aus IN718 N2 - Additive Manufacturing (AM) by Selective Laser Melting (SLM) offers ample scope for producing geometrically complex parts as compared to the traditional subtractive manufacturing strategies. However, the residual stresses which develop during the process can limit the application of SLM parts because they can reduce the load bearing capacity as well as induce unwanted distortion depending on the boundary conditions specified in manufacturing. This study aims at the characterization of residual stresses in SLM parts by using different measurement techniques. The material used is the nickel based super Alloy 718. The alloy is widely used in several applications in aerospace and chemical industries due to its superior corrosion and heat resistant properties. Microstructure as well as surface and bulk residual stresses were characterized. For residual stress analysis X-ray, synchrotron and neutron diffraction were applied. The measurements were performed at BAM, and at EDDI line -BESSY II synchrotron- and E3 line -BER II neutron reactor- of Helmholtz-Zentrum für Materialien und Energie (HZB) Berlin. The results show different residual stress states based on the different techniques, i.e. a dependence of the residual state on depth penetration in the sample. For the surface residual stresses, longitudinal and transversal stress components from both X-ray and synchrotron diffraction agree with the high tensile values around the yield limit. Furthermore, synchrotron mapping disclosed a gradient along width and length of the sample for both stress components. On the other hand, lower residual stresses are found in the bulk of the material. The longitudinal stress component is tensile and decreases towards the tip of the sample. In contrast, the normal component is almost constant and compressive in nature. The transversal component stays constant and is almost negligible. In summary, the samples of Alloy 718 manufactured by SLM process can show high tensile residual stresses in the surface as high as the yield strength of the wrought alloy. Residual stresses in the bulk show considerably lower stress values. This indicates that a stress re-distribution takes place during deposition of the SLM layers. Due to high residual stresses the dimensional stability of SLM parts can be affected as distortion can occur when removing the samples from the support structure. Future investigations are planned to study the phenomenon in detail. N2 - Die additive Fertigung (AM) mittels Selective Laser Melting (SLM) bietet großes Potential hinsichtlich der Herstellung geometrisch komplexer Bauteile im Vergleich zu herkömmlichen Fertigungsverfahren. Die sich während des Prozesses einstellenden Eigenspannungen können jedoch die Anwendung von SLM-Teilen einschränken, da sie die Tragfähigkeit reduzieren können und unerwünschten Verzug in Abhängigkeit der in der Fertigung festgelegten Randbedingungen verursachen können. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Charakterisierung von Eigenspannungen in SLM-Teilen unter Anwendung komplementärer Messtechniken. Das verwendete Material ist die Nickelbasis-Superlegierung 718. Die Legierung wird aufgrund ihrer überlegenen Korrosions- und Hochtemperaturbeständigkeit in vielen Anwendungen der Luft- und Raumfahrt- und der chemischen Industrie eingesetzt. Die Untersuchungen umfassen die Charakterisierung der Mikrostruktur sowie der Eigenspannungen in der Oberfläche als auch im Inneren der Bauteile. Für die Eigenspannungsanalyse wurden Röntgen-, Synchrotron- und Neutronenbeugung angewendet. Die Messungen wurden an der BAM, an der EDDI-Beamline bei BESSY II und an der E3-Beamline bei BER II des Helmholtz-Zentrums für Materialien und Energie (HZB) Berlin durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen unterschiedliche Eigenspannungsverteilungen auf der Grundlage der verschiedenen Techniken, d. h. eine Abhängigkeit von der Eindringtiefe der jeweiligen Strahlung in die Probe. Für die oberflächennahen Eigenspannungen ergeben sich für die Längs- und Querspannungskomponenten sowohl für Röntgen- als auch für Synchrotronbeugung hohe Werte im Bereich der Fließgrenze. Darüber hinaus offenbarte die synchrotronbasierte Messung einen Gradienten entlang der Breite und Länge der Probe für beide Spannungskomponenten. Anderseits wurden geringere Eigenspannungen im Innern des Materials gefunden. Diese können richtungsabhängig auch im Druckbereich liegen. T2 - Fachausschuss 13 "Eigenspannungen" der AWT CY - Braunschweig, Germany DA - 10.10.2017 KW - Eigenspannungen KW - Additive Fertigung PY - 2017 AN - OPUS4-42516 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas T1 - In-situ-phase analysis using synchrotron radiation of low transformation temperature (LTT) welding material N2 - Cold cracking resistance is a relevant evaluation criterion for welded joints and affected by residual stresses which result from the welding procedure. Compressive residual stresses can thereby have a positive influence on preventing cracking. A unique possibility of generating compressive residual stresses already during the welding procedure is offered by the so-called Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) filler wires. Compared to conventional wires, these materials show decreased phase transformation temperatures which can work against the cooling-specific contraction. In consequence, distinct compressive residual stresses can be observed within the weld and adjacent areas. The strength of these fillers makes them potentially applicable to high-strength steel welding. Investigations were carried out to determine the phase transformation behaviour of different LTT-filler materials. Transformation temperatures were identified using Single Sensor Differential Thermal Analysis (SS-DTA). Additionally Synchrotron radiation was used to measure the transformation kinetics of all involved crystalline phases during heating and cooling of a simulated weld thermal cycle. KW - In-situ phase analysis KW - Energy dispersive diffraction KW - Phase transformation KW - Low Transformation Temperature filler wire PY - 2009 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-205922 DO - https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-92242009000100010 SN - 0104-9224 SN - 1980-6973 VL - 14 IS - 1 SP - 82 EP - 88 PB - Associação Brasileira de Soldagem, ABS CY - Rio de Janeiro AN - OPUS4-20592 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas A1 - Kromm, Arne T1 - Formation of welding residual stresses in low transformation temperature (LTT) materials N2 - For the safety and cost efficiency of welded high-strength steel structures, precise knowledge of the level and distribution of welding- and cooling-specific stresses and residual stresses is essential, since they exert a decisive influence on strength, crack resistance, and finally on the bearable service load. This paper presents innovative filler materials, of which the phase transformation temperature was deliberately adjusted via the chemical composition. The transformation behaviour of these martensitic Low Transformation Temperature (LTT-) filler materials shows direct effects on the local residual stresses in the weld and the HAZ. These effects can purposefully be exploited to counteract the thermally induced shrinkage of the material and to produce significant compressive residual stresses in the weld. Comparative welding experiments were carried out on 690 MPa high-strength base materials using various LTT-filler materials. High energy synchrotron radiation was used for residual stress measurement. Particularly the use of high energy synchrotron radiation makes it possible to detect the residual stress condition fast without destruction of material. Thereby, residual stress depth gradients can be determined simultaneously without removing material. In steel, gradients of up to 150 µm can be resolved in such a way. Furthermore, the application of high energy radiation permits determination of residual stresses of any available residual austenite contents. Results show significant dependence of transformation temperatures on the resulting residual stress level and distribution. KW - Phase specific residual stresses KW - Phase transformation KW - Low transformation temperature filler wire KW - Energy dispersive diffraction KW - High strength steel PY - 2009 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-205909 DO - https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-92242009000100009 SN - 0104-9224 SN - 1980-6973 VL - 14 IS - 1 SP - 74 EP - 81 PB - Associação Brasileira de Soldagem, ABS CY - Rio de Janeiro AN - OPUS4-20590 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Hübner, Martin A1 - Dittmann, Florian A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Varfolomeev, Igor A1 - Kannengiesser, Thomas T1 - Improvement of Fatigue Resistance through the Application of a Low-Transformation-Temperature Welding Consumable N2 - Low transformation temperature (LTT) welding consumables are an innovative approach to reduce tensile residual stress in weld seams and the surrounding heat affected zone (HAZ). The reduced tensile stress can lead to an improvement in fatigue strength of welded components. LTT alloys are characterized by a chemical composition which reduce the martensite start temperature (Ms) close to room temperature. This article focuses on a hybrid use of LTT filler metals, where the LTT filler is applied as an additional layer to conventional welds on fatigue-critical spots. Conventional gas metal arc welded longitudinal stiffeners are used as specimens. At the face ends of the stiffeners, a second LTT layer was added with various modifications in weld shapes. These different shapes were achieved by changing the welding parameters such as welding speed and offset to the first layer. These samples were used to analyze shape, dilution, resulting Ms, residual stress and fatigue strength. The dilatometer verified Ms and dilution did not change significant, although the area of the 2nd LTT weld seam was varying clear with each modification. However, the weld modification had a significant effect on the residual stress state and the fatigue strength. The X-ray determined residual stress in the HAZ became lower when the weld toe of the LTT layer was further away from the stiffener. All samples with LTT weld exhibit significantly higher fatigue strength values than conventionally single and double-layer welded samples. The lower the residual stress at weld toe, the higher the fatigue strength. The results show that on the one hand LTT filler metals increase the fatigue strength, and on the other hand the impact of LTT fillers materials is not restricted to the dilution and Ms, the shape of the weld seam must also be considered. T2 - 4th international Conference on Advanced Joining Processes AJP CY - Combria, Portugal DA - 16.10.2025 KW - Low transformation temperature (LTT) KW - Residual stress reduction KW - Fatigue strength KW - Longitudenal stiffener PY - 2025 AN - OPUS4-65090 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kromm, Arne T1 - Die Hohlzugprobentechnik - Eine neue Methodik zur Untersuchung der Materialverträglichkeit unter Wasserstoffeinfluss N2 - Die schädigende Wirkung von Wasserstoff auf die mechanischen Eigenschaften von Stählen ist zwar bekannt, aber noch immer nicht ausreichend erforscht. Die schnelle und sichere Markteinführung von Wasserstofftechnologien macht es erforderlich, dieses Thema genauer zu untersuchen. Im Allgemeinen wird dies oft als Wasserstoffversprödung bezeichnet. Daher ist es wünschenswert, eine Prüfmethode zu entwickeln, die auf einfache Weise die Materialeigenschaften unter Wasserstoffatmosphäre ermitteln kann. Derzeit werden mechanische Prüfungen unter Wasserstoffatmosphäre in Autoklaven durchgeführt. Für diese Technik ist eine aufwendige Hardware erforderlich, daher sind die Prüfungen teuer und die Prüfkapazitäten nur in geringem Umfang verfügbar. Die hier vorgestellte Prüfmethode verspricht einen zukunftsweisenden Ansatz zur Reduzierung von Kosten und Bearbeitungszeiten durch die Verwendung von Hohlkörpern, d.h. die Probe selbst stellt den Autoklav dar. T2 - Sitzung des DIN-Gemeinschaftsarbeitsausschusses NA 092 00 05 GA, NAS/NMP: Zerstörende Prüfung von Schweißverbindungen CY - Berlin, Germany DA - 15.03.2023 KW - Prüfung KW - Wasserstoff KW - Probengeometrie KW - Hochdruck PY - 2023 AN - OPUS4-57168 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Nadammal, Naresh A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Saliwan Neumann, Romeo A1 - Farahbod, Lena A1 - Haberland, Christoph A1 - Portella, Pedro Dolabella T1 - Influence of support configurations on the characteristics of selective laser-melted Inconel 718 N2 - Samples fabricated using two different support configurations by following identical scan strategies during selective laser melting of superalloy Inconel 718 were characterized in this study. Characterization methods included optical microscopy, electron back-scattered diffraction and x-ray diffraction residual stress measurement. For the scan strategy considered, microstructure and residual stress development in the samples were influenced by the support structures. However, crystallographic texture intensity and the texture components formed within the core part of the samples were almost independent of the support. The formation of finer grains closer to the support as well as within the columnar grain boundaries resulted in randomization and texture intensity reduction by nearly half for the sample built on a lattice support. Heat transfer rates dictated by the support configurations in addition to the scan strategy influenced the microstructure and residual stress development in selective laser-melted Inconel 718 samples. KW - Additive manufacturing KW - Selective laser melting KW - Support configurations KW - Microstructure and texture KW - Residual stress PY - 2018 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-017-2703-1 SN - 1047-4838 SN - 1543-1851 VL - 70 IS - 3 SP - 343 EP - 348 PB - Springer CY - USA AN - OPUS4-44175 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - GEN A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas ED - Carl E. Cross, ED - John C. Lippold, ED - Böllinghaus, Thomas ED - Herold, H. T1 - Influence of Local Weld Deformation on the Solidification Cracking Susceptibility of a Fully Austenitic Stainless Steel PY - 2008 SN - 978-3-540-78627-6 VL - II SP - 127 EP - 145 PB - Springer CY - Berlin AN - OPUS4-18642 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Schröder, Nina A1 - Uhlig, Marvin A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Schröpfer, Dirk A1 - Höfer, Kevin A1 - Hensel, Jonas A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas T1 - Challenges in the evaluation of the weldability of old mild steels for future use N2 - For reasons of sustainability and cost efficiency, there is an increasing trend in the steel-processing industry to retrofit existing structures, avoiding costly shutdowns or dismantling. Although welding is a cost-effective joining method, it is rarely applied to old steels, whereas riveted or bolted connections are often uneconomical. Repair and refurbishment frequently require the replacement of damaged material or the creation of dissimilar old–new steel joints. Due to the varied manufacturing processes of historical steels, not all twentieth-century steels are inherently weldable, making an initial assessment of weldability essential. In this study, a historical non-deoxidized mild steel (produced by Siemens–Martin processing) originating from the construction of the Berlin Radio Tower (erected in 1926) was investigated using dilatometry to analyze its welding behavior. A database of welding CCT diagrams and HAZ simulations was established to support practice-oriented welding experiments, providing key insights into their weld-metallurgical behavior and weldability. Furthermore, initial welding trials were conducted, and the local residual stress states in dissimilar old–new steel joints were determined. These foundational investigations are critical for the development of innovative, load-adapted welding concepts for the repair and refurbishment of existing old-steel infrastructure in Germany. KW - Old mild steels KW - Repair welding KW - Weldability KW - Thermo-physical simulation KW - CCT diagrams PY - 2026 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-654784 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-026-02366-6 SN - 1878-6669 SP - 1 EP - 14 PB - Springer nature AN - OPUS4-65478 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Hübner, Martin A1 - Dittmann, Florian A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Varfolomeev, Igor A1 - Kannengiesser, Thomas T1 - Enhancement of the fatigue strength by application of a low transformation temperature (LTT) welding consumable N2 - Low transformation temperature (LTT) welding consumables offer a possibility to enhance fatigue strength in welded components without post-treatment. By lowering the martensite start temperature (MS), the volume expansion during transformation near ambient temperature reduces welding related tensile residual stresses in fatigue-critical areas. To evaluate this effect, longitudinal stiffeners were used, a LTT and conventional filler serve as welding consumable, also high frequency mechanical impact (HFMI) treatment was carried out. Three single-pass and six additional-pass sample series were investigated on residual stress and fatigue strength. The additional welds were applied in fatigue crack critical areas with different weld shapes, achieved by varying welding parameters. Mechanical tests on reference samples evaluated the properties of the diluted LTT welds. Although reduced toughness was observed, no fatigue cracks occurred in LTT single-pass weld roots. The fatigue strength at two million cycles increased from 81 MPa to 121 MPa compared to conventional welds, while HFMI reached 146 MPa. With an additional LTT weld pass the results varied from 138 MPa to 196 MPa, depending to the shape and residual stress state. The results show that LTT fillers effectively enhance fatigue performance, and that weld geometry and parameter selection are as critical as the chemical composition for maximizing the LTT effect. CY - Genua, Italy DA - 22.06.2025 KW - Low transformation temperature (LTT) KW - Martensite start temperature KW - Residual stress KW - Longitudenal stiffener KW - Fatigue strength PY - 2026 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-654520 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-026-02356-8 SP - 1 EP - 14 PB - Springer Nature AN - OPUS4-65452 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Dixneit, J. A1 - Gibmeier, J. A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Schubnell, J. A1 - Lang, F. A1 - Loebich, F. A1 - Carl, E.-R. A1 - Ya, W. T1 - Residual stress distribution of a large component manufactured by AM-DED-Arc from high-strength weld filler material X90 N2 - Currently, DED-Arc manufactured components are not covered by design guidelines, and design factors such as residual stress factors are not defined for such components. This hinders industrial use, especially for components with a remaining surface waviness required by industry. For the first time the stress state of a high-strength, low-alloy, large-scale DED-Arc component was characterised in the as-built state and after cutting off the component from the substrate plate. Complementary methods of residual stress analyses were applied to gain a holistic insight into the residual stress distributions of a thick-walled part. In the as-built state, direction-dependent and position-dependent tensile residual stresses were found for the component at the level of the yield strength of the part. The additive manufacturing strategy continuous spiral deposition has no significant influence on the residual stresses in bead threshold area compared to the residual stresses of the remaining component. For this case, bead threshold is no structural imperfection. By removing the part from the substrate plate, the residual stresses are significantly redistributed. Tensile residual stresses are then present at a moderate level. Compressive residual stresses were determined in the volume of the deposited material. The general consideration of ‘‘high’’ tensile residual stresses in such thick-walled components is rather conservative. Therefore, design guidelines should take the manufacturing condition into account. KW - AM-DED-Arc KW - Residual stress KW - High strength steel PY - 2026 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-655239 DO - https://doi.org/10.1177/03093247251406876 SN - 2041-3130 SP - 1 EP - 18 PB - SAGE AN - OPUS4-65523 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Spranger, Felix A1 - Schirdewahn, S. A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Merklein, M. A1 - Hilgenberg, Kai T1 - On the influence of tib2, tic and tin hard particles on the microstructure of localized laser dispersed aisi d2 tool steel surfaces N2 - The control of friction and wear is a major concern in many industrial applications. A promising method for a tailored surface modification is the so-called laser implantation technique. This method combines surface texturing and material optimization in one processing step by a localized dispersing of hard ceramic particles using pulsed laser radiation. Wear resistant, protruding micrometric features (implants) with defined geometry can be created in deterministic pattern where needed on highly stressed surfaces, i.e. on forming or cutting tools. However, in order to maintain the implants over the tool’s lifetime, a suitable selection of hard ceramic particles is a prerequisite. They must provide a defect-free Metal Matrix Composite with a high share of homogeneously distributed particles and especially a high implant hardness. In this study TiN, TiC and TiB2 hard particles were compared as implant materials for the first time. By a systematic variation of the pulse power and pulse duration, their dispersing behavior and influence on the material properties of AISI D2 tool steel was investigated. Although all powder materials had grain sizes smaller than 10 µm, it was possible to disperse them by pulsed laser radiation and to obtain defect-free protruding implants. The highest share of dispersed particles (~64 %) was observed for TiB2. By scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, it was also shown that a significant share of the pre-placed particles was dissolved by the laser beam and precipitated as nanometer sized particles within the matrix during solidification. These in-situ formed particles have a decisive influence on the material properties. While the TiN and TiC implants have shown maximum hardness values of 750 HV1 and 850 HV1, the TiB2 implants have shown the highest hardness values with more than 1600 HV1. By X-ray diffraction, it was possible to ascribe the lower hardness values of TiC and TiN implants to high amounts of retained austenite in the metal matrix. By implanting TiB2, the formation of retained austenite was successfully suppressed due to the in-situ formation of TiC particles, which was proven by electron backscatter diffraction. In conclusion, all the implant materials are basically suitable for laser implantation on AISI D2 tool steel. However, TiB2 has shown the most promising results. T2 - 38th International Congress on Applications of Lasers & Electro-Optics CY - Orlando, FL, USA DA - 07.10.2019 KW - Laser implantation KW - Surface texturing KW - AISI D2 KW - TiB2 PY - 2019 SN - 978-1-940168-1-42 SP - 1 EP - 10 AN - OPUS4-49317 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Schröpfer, Dirk A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Schaupp, Thomas A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas T1 - Welding stress control in high-strength steel components using adapted heat control concepts N2 - High-strength steels are increasingly applied in modern steel constructions to meet today’s lightweight requirements. Welding of these steels demands a profound knowledge of the interactions between the welding process, cooling conditions, heat input, and the resulting metallurgical occurrences in the weld and its vicinity. Additionally, welding stresses may be detrimental for the safety and performance of high-strength steel component welds during fabrication and service, especially due to the high yield ratio. For a development of strategies to adjust welding heat control, all these effects should be considered, to reach a complete exploitation of the high-strength steel potential. In recent researches at BAM, multilayer GMAW experiments were performed with high-strength steels, in which cooling conditions and resulting microstructure were analyzed for varied heat control parameters. The application of a unique 3d-operating testing facility and X-ray diffraction measurements allowed the analysis of local stresses in the weld while welding and cooling under component relevant shrinkage restraints. As a result, correlations between material behavior, welding, and cooling condition and the arising multi-axial stresses and forces were found. Based on this study, statements for the development of adapted heat control concepts were derived, which are presented by means of specific analysis examples. KW - Residual stresses KW - GMA welding KW - Restraint KW - High-strength steels KW - Process parameters PY - 2019 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-018-00691-z SN - 0043-2288 VL - 63 IS - 3 SP - 647 EP - 661 PB - Springer AN - OPUS4-48006 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kromm, Arne T1 - Bewertung konstruktiv bedingter Erstarrungsrisse beim Schweißen hochfester Feinkornbaustähle N2 - Die klassische Beurteilung der Heißrissneigung erfolgt bislang primär über das Prüfen der Schweißeignung des Werkstoffes. Die konstruktiven Bedingungen und bauteilspezifischen Beanspruchungszustände bleiben dabei meist unberücksichtigt. Die Vielzahl an Heißrisstests liefert dabei lediglich werkstoff-spezifische, empiri-sche Heißrissparameter, wie z. B. Gesamtrisslänge oder Gesamtrissanzahl. Eine Bauteilübertragbarkeit ist somit oftmals nicht gegeben, gerade wenn es sich um hochbeanspruchte Konstruktionsmerkmale des Leichtbaus handelt. Folglich sind mechanische Kenngrößen (risskritische Verformungen/Spannungen) zu identifizieren, die sicher und unter realitätsnahen Bedingungen erfasst werden können. Diese dienen als Transfergrößen, um die Heißrissanfälligkeit geschweißter Bauteile mit typischen Konstruktionsmerkmalen zu bewerten. T2 - Forschungsverbund HOCHFEST - Fosta e.V. CY - Dusseldorf, Germany DA - 25.09.2019 KW - Erstarrungsriss KW - Schweißen KW - Heißriss PY - 2019 AN - OPUS4-49268 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Ferrari, Bruno A1 - Fantin, Andrea A1 - Said, D. A1 - Fitch, A. N. A1 - Suárez Ocano, Patricia A1 - Mishurova, Tatiana A1 - Roveda, Ilaria A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Darvishi Kamachali, Reza A1 - Bruno, Giovanni A1 - Evans, Alexander A1 - Requena, G. A1 - Agudo Jácome, Leonardo A1 - Serrano Munoz, Itziar T1 - The impact of scanning strategy on cell structures in PBF-LB/M/IN718: an in situ synchrotron x-ray diffraction study N2 - In additive manufacturing, any change of the process parameters, such as scanning strategy, directly affects the cooling rates, heat accumulation, and overall thermal history of the build. Consequently, parts built with different process parameters tend to have different levels of crystallographic texture, residual stress, and dislocation density. These features can influence the properties of the material and their development during post-processing operations. In this study, IN718 prisms were built by laser powder bed fusion (PBF-LB/M) using two different scanning strategies (continuous 67° rotations around the build direction, ROT, and alternating 0°/67° scans, ALT) to provide two different as-built conditions. In situ time-resolved synchrotron diffraction was performed during a solution heat treatment at 1027 °C for 1 h. Ex situ scanning electron microscopy was used to support and complement the in situ observations. An approach to quantify the effect of elemental microsegregation at the cell walls is developed based on the deconvolution of asymmetric γ-nickel matrix peaks. Following this approach, the scanning strategies are shown to affect the as-built fraction of cell walls in the material, resulting in a difference of approximately 5 %, in weight fraction, between ROT and ALT (19 % vs. 24 %, respectively). This microsegregation was observed to be rapidly homogenized during the heating ramp, and no significant changes to the peak shape in the γ peaks occurred during the isothermal part of the heat treatment, regardless of the scanning strategy. KW - Additive manufacturing KW - Inconel 718 KW - Synchrotron x-ray diffraction KW - Heat treatment KW - Laser powder bed fusion KW - Cellular microstructure PY - 2026 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-650958 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2025.11.214 SN - 2238-7854 VL - 41 SP - 593 EP - 608 PB - Elsevier B.V. AN - OPUS4-65095 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Nadammal, Naresh A1 - Cabeza, Sandra A1 - Mishurova, Tatiana A1 - Thiede, Tobias A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Seyfert, Christoph A1 - Farahbod, Lena A1 - Haberland, Christoph A1 - Schneider, Judith Ann A1 - Portella, Pedro Dolabella A1 - Bruno, Giovanni T1 - Effect of hatch length on the development of microstructure, texture and residual stresses in selective laser melted superalloy Inconel 718 N2 - In the present study, samples fabricated by varying the deposition hatch length during selective laser melting of nickel based superalloy Inconel 718 were investigated. Microstructure and texture of these samples was characterized using scanning electron microscopy, combined with electron back-scattered diffraction, and residual stress assessment, using neutron diffraction method. Textured columnar grains oriented along the sample building direction were observed in the shorter hatch length processed sample. A ten-fold increase in the hatch length reduced the texture intensity by a factor of two attributed to the formation of finer grains in the longer hatch length sample. Larger gradients of transverse residual stress in the longer hatch length sample were also observed. Along the build direction, compressive stresses in the shorter hatch length and negligible stresses for the longer hatch length specimen were observed. Changes to the temperature gradient (G) in response to the hatch length variation, influenced the G to growth rate (R) ratio and the product G × R, in agreement with the microstructures and textures formed. For the residual stress development, geometry of the part also played an important role. In summary, tailored isotropy could be induced in Inconel 718 by a careful selection of parameters during selective laser melting. KW - Additive manufacturing KW - Nickel-based superalloy KW - Microstructure and texture KW - Residual stress KW - Electron back-scattered diffraction KW - Neutron diffraction PY - 2017 UR - http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264127517308018 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2017.08.049 SN - 0264-1275 VL - 134 SP - 139 EP - 150 PB - Elsevier CY - Oxford, UK AN - OPUS4-41606 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Schröder, Jakob A1 - Evans, Alexander A1 - Luzin, V. A1 - Abreu Faria, G. A1 - Degener, Sebastian A1 - Polatidis, E. A1 - Čapek, J. A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Dovzhenko, G. A1 - Bruno, Giovanni T1 - Texture-based residual stress analysis of laser powder bed fused Inconel 718 parts N2 - Although layer-based additive manufacturing methods such as laser powder bed fusion (PBF-LB) offer an immense geometrical freedom in design, they are typically subject to a build-up of internal stress (i.e. thermal stress) during manufacturing. As a consequence, significant residual stress (RS) is retained in the final part as a footprint of these internal stresses. Furthermore, localized melting and solidification inherently induce columnar-type grain growth accompanied by crystallographic texture. Although diffraction-based methods are commonly used to determine the RS distribution in PBF-LB parts, such features pose metrological challenges in their application. In theory, preferred grain orientation invalidates the hypothesis of isotropic material behavior underlying the common methods to determine RS. In this work, more refined methods are employed to determine RS in PBF-LB/M/IN718 prisms, based on crystallographic texture data. In fact, the employment of direction-dependent elastic constants (i.e. stress factors) for the calculation of RS results in insignificant differences from conventional approaches based on the hypothesis of isotropic mechanical properties. It can be concluded that this result is directly linked to the fact that the {311} lattice planes typically used for RS analysis in nickel-based alloys have high multiplicity and less strong texture intensities compared with other lattice planes. It is also found that the length of the laser scan vectors determines the surface RS distribution in prisms prior to their removal from the baseplate. On removal from the baseplate the surface RS considerably relaxes and/or redistributes; a combination of the geometry and the scanning strategy dictates the sub-surface RS distribution. KW - Additive manufacturing KW - Electron backscattered diffraction KW - Principal stress KW - Residual stress PY - 2023 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-578331 DO - https://doi.org/10.1107/S1600576723004855 SN - 1600-5767 VL - 56 IS - Pt 4 SP - 1076 EP - 1090 AN - OPUS4-57833 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Sprengel, Maximilian A1 - Mohr, Gunther A1 - Altenburg, Simon A1 - Evans, Alexander A1 - Serrano-Munoz, Itziar A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Pirling, T. A1 - Bruno, Giovanni A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas T1 - Triaxial Residual Stress in Laser Powder Bed Fused 316L: Effects of Interlayer Time and Scanning Velocity N2 - The triaxial distribution of the residual stress in laser powder bed fused austenitic steel 316L was determined by X-ray and neutron diffraction. The residual stress analysis results were linked to the thermal history of the specimens, which were manufactured with varying inter-layer-times and scanning velocities. A clear link between the in-process temperature of the specimens and the residual stress was found, based on in-situ monitoring data. KW - Stainless Steel KW - AGIL KW - Residual Stress KW - X-ray and Neutron Diffraction KW - Additive Manufacturing PY - 2022 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-542620 DO - https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.202101330 SP - 1 EP - 13 PB - Wiley-VCH GmbH AN - OPUS4-54262 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Cabeza, S. A1 - Mishurova, Tatiana A1 - Nadammal, Naresh A1 - Thiede, Tobias A1 - Bruno, Giovanni T1 - Residual Stresses in Selective Laser Melted Samples of a Nickel Based Superalloy N2 - Additive Manufacturing (AM) through the Selective Laser Melting (SLM) route offers ample scope for producing geometrically complex parts compared to the conventional subtractive manufacturing strategies. Nevertheless, the residual stresses which develop during the fabrication can limit application of the SLM components by reducing the load bearing capacity and by inducing unwanted distortion, depending on the boundary conditions specified during manufacturing. The present study aims at characterizing the residual stress states in the SLM parts using different diffraction methods. The material used is the nickel based superalloy Inconel 718. Microstructure as well as the surface and bulk residual stresses were characterized. For the residual stress analysis, X-ray, synchrotron and neutron diffraction methods were used. The measurements were performed at BAM, at the EDDI beamline of -BESSY II synchrotronand the E3 line -BER II neutron reactor- of the Helmholtz-Zentrum für Materialien und Energie (HZB) Berlin. The results reveal significant differences in the residual stress states for the different characterization techniques employed, which indicates the dependence of the residual state on the penetration depth in the sample. For the surface residual stresses, longitudinal and transverse stress components from X-ray and synchrotron agree well and the obtained values were around the yield strength of the material. Furthermore, synchrotron mapping disclosed gradients along the width and length of the sample for the longitudinal and transverse stress components. On the other hand, lower residual stresses were found in the bulk of the material measured using neutron diffraction. The longitudinal component was tensile and decreased towards the boundary of the sample. In contrast, the normal component was nearly constant and compressive in nature. The transversal component was almost negligible. The results indicate that a stress re-distribution takes place during the deposition of the consecutive layers. Further investigations are planned to study the phenomenon in detail. T2 - European Conference on Residual Stresses - ECRS10 CY - Leuven, Belgium DA - 11.09.2018 KW - Additive Manufacturing KW - Selective Laser Melting KW - Residual Stresses PY - 2018 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-459818 SN - 978-1-94529-189-0 SN - 978-1-94529-188-3 DO - https://doi.org/10.21741/9781945291890-41 SN - 2474-395X SN - 2474-3941 VL - 6 SP - 259 EP - 264 PB - Materials Research Forum LLC CY - Millersville, PA 17551, USA AN - OPUS4-45981 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Serrano-Munoz, Itziar A1 - Mishurova, Tatiana A1 - Thiede, Tobias A1 - Sprengel, Maximilian A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Nadammal, Naresh A1 - Nolze, Gert A1 - Saliwan Neumann, Romeo A1 - Evans, Alexander A1 - Bruno, Giovanni T1 - The residual stress in as‑built Laser Powder Bed Fusion IN718 alloy as a consequence of the scanning strategy induced microstructure N2 - The effect of two types of scanning strategies on the grain structure and build-up of Residual Stress (RS) has been investigated in an as-built IN718 alloy produced by Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF). The RS state has been investigated by X-ray diffraction techniques. The microstructural characterization was performed principally by Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD), where the application of a post-measurement refinement technique enables small misorientations (< 2°) to be resolved. Kernel average misorientation (KAM) distributions indicate that preferably oriented columnar grains contain higher levels of misorientation, when compared to elongated grains with lower texture. The KAM distributions combined with X-ray diffraction stress maps infer that the increased misorientation is induced via plastic deformation driven by the thermal stresses, acting to self-relieve stress. The possibility of obtaining lower RS states in the build direction as a consequence of the influence of the microstructure should be considered when envisaging scanning strategies aimed at the mitigation of RS. KW - Additive manufacturing KW - LPBF KW - Residual stress KW - Inconel 718 KW - Kernel average misorientation KW - Texture PY - 2020 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-511769 DO - https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-71112-9 VL - 10 IS - 1 SP - 14645 AN - OPUS4-51176 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Schröpfer, Dirk A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Dixneit, Jonny A1 - Lausch, Thomas A1 - Hannemann, Andreas A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas T1 - Von der Anwendung ins Prüflabor: Maßstabsgetreues Bewerten von Spannungen in geschweißten Bauteilen N2 - Eigenspannungen sind von zentraler Bedeutung für die Performance geschweißter Bauteile. Die Bewertung schweißbedingter Beanspruchungen im Labormaßstab ist oft nicht zielführend. Reale Bauteilschweißungen weisen geometrisch und konstruktiv bedingt meist divergente Wärmeableitungs- und Einspannbedingungen auf. Dadurch lassen sich häufig nur eingeschränkt Aussagen über Eigenspannungshöhen, -verteilungen und die wesentlichen Einflussfaktoren treffen. Dies führt oftmals zur eher konservativen Konstruktionsauslegung und damit zu einer geringerenRessourcen- und Energieeffizienz. Dieser Beitrag widmet sich den Bestrebungen, reale Randbedingungen beim Bauteilschweißen in das Labor zu übertragen. Es werden die Möglichkeiten eines speziell für diesen Zweck an der BAM entwickelten Prüfsystems mit einer maximalen Tragkraft von 2 MN aufgezeigt. Durch die konstruktive Gestaltung der Anlage lassen sich in Schweißversuchen schweißbedingte Beanspruchungen nachbilden und die komplexen Einflüsse und Wechselwirkungen durch Schweißprozess, Bauteilgeometrie und -konstruktion sowie durch die eingesetzten Grund- und Zusatzwerkstoffe quantifizieren. Darüber hinaus können mittels Röntgenbeugung die resultierenden lokalen Eigenspannungen präzise und mit hoher Ortsauflösung bestimmt werden. Anhand von Beispielen wird die Nachbildung realer Produktionsbedingungen im Labor erörtert und gezeigt, wie die Spannungen beim Schweißen hochfester Baustähle von konstruktiven, werkstoff- und prozessseitigen Randbedingungen abhängen. So wurde geklärt, wie erhöhte Arbeitstemperaturen zum signifikanten Anstieg der Beanspruchungen führen. T2 - DVS Congress 2019 Große Schweißtechnische Tagung CY - Rostock, Germany DA - 16.09.2019 KW - Schweißen KW - Eigenspannungen KW - Bauteilprüfung PY - 2019 SN - 978-3-96144-066-5 VL - 355 SP - 280 EP - 286 PB - DVS Media GmbH CY - Düsseldorf AN - OPUS4-50279 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kromm, Arne T1 - Einfluss schweißbedingter Spannungen auf die Relaxationsrissbildung bei der Wärmebehandlung warmfester 13CrMoV-Stähle N2 - Wirtschaftliche und ökologische Aspekte führten in den letzten Jahren zu deutlich gesteigerten Anforderungen an die Effizienz und die Flexibilität petrochemischer Anlagen. Die heutzutage geforderten Prozesstemperaturen und -drücke lassen sich nur durch den Einsatz neuer warmfester Stahlgüten erreichen. Der mit Vanadium modifizierte Stahl 13CrMoV9-10 weist eine bessere Kriech- und Druckwasserstoffbeständigkeit auf und wird seit Mitte der 90er Jahre im petrochemischen Reaktorbau eingesetzt. Aufgrund der niedrigen Zähigkeit und hohen Festigkeit des Schweißgutes im geschweißten, nicht spannungsarm geglühten Zustand sowie einer erhöhten Sensitivität gegenüber Spannungsrelaxationsrissen bedarf dieser Stahl allerdings einer äußerst sorgfältigen schweißtechnischen Verarbeitung. Bisherige Untersuchungen zur Rissentstehung in warmfesten Stählen konzentrierten sich vorrangig auf thermische und metallurgische Einflussfaktoren, bieten jedoch nur wenige Erkenntnisse zum Einfluss des Schweißprozesses auf die Rissbildung beim Spannungsarmglühen unter Berücksichtigung realitätsnaher Fertigungsbedingungen. Im ersten Teil wurde zunächst der Einfluss der Wärmeführung auf die mechanischen Eigenschaften anhand von frei schrumpfenden Laborproben untersucht. Während sich die Wärmeführung wesentlich auf die Schweißnahtstruktur auswirkte, war ein signifikanter Effekt auf die mechanischen Eigenschaften nicht nachweisbar. Auch traten infolge der Wärmenachbehandlung der frei schrumpfend geschweißten Proben keine Spannungsrelaxationsrisse auf. Der zweite Teil umfasste die realitätsnahe Abbildung der Fertigungsbedingungen im petrochemischen Reaktorbau. Zu diesem Zweck wurden die konstruktiven Randbedingungen während des Vorwärmens, Schweißens, des Wasserstoffarmglühens und der abschließenden Wärmenachbehandlung realitätsnah in einer speziellen 3-D-Prüfanlage zur Simulation von Bauteilschweißungen abgebildet. Unter konstruktiver Schrumpfbehinderung gelang der Nachweis der unterschiedlichen Wirkung von Vorwärm- / Zwischenlagentemperatur und Streckenenergie auf die resultierenden Kräfte, Momente und Spannungen. Die Gesamtreaktionsspannung nach dem Schweißen wurde innerhalb des untersuchten Parameterfeldes maßgeblich durch die Streckenenergie beeinflusst. Ein möglichst geringer Gesamtwärmeeintrag hat die niedrigste Bauteilbeanspruchung zur Folge. Während der Wärmenachbehandlung kam es in allen Versuchen zu Spannungsrelaxationsrissen. Deren kumulierte Länge korrelierte mit den ermittelten schweißbedingten Reaktionsspannungen. Die Detektion der Risse während der Wärmenachbehandlung im Bauteilversuch erfolgte erstmalig in-situ mittels Schallemissionsanalyse. Die Rissinitiierung fand nachweislich im Temperaturbereich von 300 °C bis 500 °C statt. Die Reaktionsspannungen nach der Wärmenachbehandlung lagen unabhängig von der Ausgangsbelastung auf einem vergleichbaren Niveau. Die Zähigkeit der Schweißverbindung nahm klar gegenüber den frei schrumpfend geschweißten Proben ab. Mittels REM- und TEM-Analysen an vergleichbaren belasteten und unbelasteten Proben wurde eine beschleunigte Alterung, durch das frühzeitige Ausscheiden von Sonderkarbiden während der Wärmenachbehandlung unter definierter Einspannung (d. h. unter Belastung), nachgewiesen. Die verstärkte Korngrenzensegregation korrelierte mit der signifikanten Abnahme der Kerbschlagarbeit der unter Einspannung geschweißten Proben. T2 - Fachausschuss 13 "Eigenspannungen" der AWT CY - Ilmenau, Germany DA - 07.05.2019 KW - Schweißen KW - Warmfester Stahl KW - Spannungsrelaxationsrisse PY - 2019 AN - OPUS4-47977 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kromm, Arne T1 - Schwingfestigkeitsverbesserung hochfester Schweißverbindungen mit Hilfe neuartiger LTT-Zusatzwerkstoffe N2 - Die Verwendung von LTT-Zusatzwerkstoffen stellt einen alternativen Ansatz zu den sonst üblichen Verfahren der Schweißnahtnachbehandlung zur Schwingfestigkeitserhöhung geschweißter Stahlkonstruktionen dar. Der wesentliche Wirkmechanismus beruht auf der Beeinflussung des Eigenspannungszustands durch die niedrige Martensitstarttemperatur bereits während des Schweißens. Dadurch werden die Druckeigenspannungen aus der behinderten Volumenausdehnung infolge Phasenumwandlung voll wirksam. Weiter weist die Schweißnaht eine hohe Härte auf, die die Schwingrissbildung verzögern kann, allerdings auch zu einer niedrigen Kerbschlagarbeit führt. Im ersten Teil dieses Beitrages werden grundlegende Untersuchungen zur schweißtechnischen Verarbeitung eines LTT-Zusatzwerkstoffes präsentiert. Dies beinhaltet zunächst die Sicherstellung der Schweißbarkeit sowie die Charakterisierung der Schweißgefüge und deren Härte mit dem Ziel, reproduzierbare Verbindungseigenschaften für die nachfolgende Schwingfestigkeitsprüfung herzustellen. Der zweite Teil des Beitrages beschäftigt sich mit den dazugehörigen Schwingfestigkeitsuntersuchungen an den Stählen S355J2 und S960Q unter Verwendung konventioneller Zusatzwerkstoffe im Vergleich zum LTT-Zusatz. Das verwendete Schweißdetail ist eine Verbindungsschweißung am Stumpfstoß unter Variation der Schweißnahtausführung (DY-Naht und V-Naht). Weitergehend wird eine bauteilähnliche Probe (die Längssteife) untersucht, bei der der LTT-Zusatzwerkstoff als zusätzliche Schweißlage aufgebracht wurde. Neben der Schwingfestigkeit werden die Schweißnähte hinsichtlich der Eigenspannungen, der Eigenspannungsstabilität im Schwingversuch sowie metallografisch charakterisiert. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass LTT-Zusatzwerkstoffe unter Einhaltung wesentlicher Konstruktionsrichtlinien zu einem deutlichen Anstieg der Schwingfestigkeit führen. Dadurch kann das Leichtbaupotential hochfester Stahlgüten genutzt werden. T2 - Sitzung des NA 092-00-05 GA „Gemeinschaftsarbeitsausschuss NAS/NMP: Zerstörende Prüfung von Schweißverbindungen (DVS AG Q 4/Q 4.1)“ CY - Magdeburg, Germany DA - 13.03.2019 KW - Eigenspannungen KW - Schwingfestigkeit KW - Schweißen PY - 2019 AN - OPUS4-47590 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kromm, Arne T1 - Effect of weld penetration on hydrogen-assisted cracking in welding of high-strength structural steels T1 - Einfluss von Schweißprozess und Einbrandverhalten auf die Kaltrissbildung hochfester Feinkornbaustähle N2 - In the present study, the susceptibility to HAC of the HSLA steel S960QL with same type of filler material was investigated. For that purpose, both Conv. A and Mod. SA were used with same weld heat input at different deposition rates. For assessment of the HAC susceptibility, the externally loaded Implant-test [ ] was used. Both conducted test series with Conv. A and Mod. SA showed similar crack critical stress of about 280 MPa. Below this value, no delayed fracture appeared. The welds with Mod. SA showed higher hydrogen concentrations. The fracture occurred in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) or in the weld metal (WM). But in all specimens, cracks initiated at the notch root of the spiral notch of the implants within the coarse-grained HAZ. However, the test series with Mod. SA showed a significant extension of the time-to-failure of several hours compared to tests carried out with Conv. A, see Fig. 1a. The reason is the deeper weld penetration in case of Mod. SA (Fig. 1b and Fig. 1c), which causes longer diffusion path for hydrogen. The fracture topography of the ruptured implant specimens with Conv. A was typical ductile in specimen center and quasi-cleavage like at the edge of the specimens. When using Mod. SA, the topography changed to primarily quasi-cleavage fracture topography with shares of intergranular fracture and secondary crack appearance. T2 - Sitzung des NA 092-00-05 GA „Gemeinschaftsarbeitsausschuss NAS/NMP: Zerstörende Prüfung von Schweißverbindungen (DVS AG Q 4/Q 4.1)“ CY - Magdeburg, Germany DA - 13.03.2019 KW - Hydrogen-assisted cracking KW - Welding KW - High-strength steel PY - 2019 AN - OPUS4-47591 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kromm, Arne T1 - Influence of welding stresses on relaxation cracking during heat treatment of a creep-resistant 13CrMoV steel N2 - Over the past years economic and environmental considerations have led to a markedly increased demand for efficiency and flexibility in petrochemical plants. The operational temperatures and pressures required today can only be achieved by using new creep-resistant grades of steel. The modified 13CrMoV9-10 vanadium steel shows a good resistance against creep and compressed hydrogen and has been in use for the construction of petrochemical reactors since the mid-1990s. Nevertheless, processing of this type of steel requires extreme care during the welding procedure. This is due to its low toughness and high strength in the welded state when not post weld heat treated combined with increased susceptibility to cracking during stress relaxation. Previous research into crack formation in creep-resistant steels has largely focused on thermal and metallurgical factors; however, little knowledge has been gathered regarding the influence of the welding procedure on crack formation during post weld heat treatment considering real-life manufacturing conditions. The influence of heat control on the mechanical properties has been investigated by simulating the welding and subsequent post weld heat treatment operations during the construction of petrochemical reactors using a special 3-D testing facility on the laboratory scale. This work is subdivided in two parts. In part I of this study the stresses resulting from preheating, welding, dehydrogenation heat treatment and the final post weld heat treatment were analyzed during experiments under varied heat control. In all experiments stress relief cracks formed during post weld heat treatment could be observed. The total crack lengths correlated with the welding induced stresses. Part II of this work is dedicated to the characterization of the cracks and the microstructure. The application of a special acoustic emission analysis indicated that the cracks formed in a temperature range between 300 °C and 500 °C during the post weld heat treatment. In comparison to small scale specimens welded without additional shrinkage restraint, the toughness of the restrained welds was significantly decreased. SEM and TEM analyses of all samples revealed accelerated aging due to early precipitation of special carbides during post weld heat treatment under component relevant restraint. T2 - IIW Annual Assembly CY - Bratislava, Slovakia DA - 08.07.2019 KW - Welding KW - Creep-resistant steel KW - Post weld heat treatment KW - Stress relief cracking PY - 2019 AN - OPUS4-48580 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas T1 - Online-Observation of Martensite Formation by combined use of Synchrotron Diffraction and Dilatometry N2 - Welding residual stress engineering by means of an adjusted martensite phase transformation would be highly attractive as detrimental tensile residual stresses may be prevented already during welding without time and cost intensive post processing. The present study shows a synchrotron diffraction analysis of a martensitic steel subjected to thermo-mechanical load cycles. Experiments were conducted regarding the microstructural strain response during the austenite to martensite transformation. The strains are a function of the temperature and the specific loads applied during cooling. The relation between the transformation plasticity of the material, the amount of martensite formed and the arising strains can thus be assessed. The lattice plane specific strains were compared to experimental findings from (macro) dilatation tests. It is shown that the microscopic material behavior differs remarkably from the one observed on the macroscopic scale, what leads to characteristic residual stresses in the material. T2 - Visual-JW 2019 & WSE 2019 The 5th International Symposium on Visualization in Joining & Welding Science through Advanced Measurements and Simulation & The 8th International Conference of Welding Science and Engineering CY - Osaka, Japan DA - 21.11.2019 KW - Martensite KW - Synchrotron KW - Dilatometry KW - Residual stress KW - Phase transformation PY - 2019 SP - 83 EP - 84 PB - SEIEI Printing Co., Ltd CY - Osaka, Japan AN - OPUS4-49770 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kromm, Arne T1 - Online-Observation of Martensite Formation by combined use of Synchrotron Diffraction and Dilatometry N2 - Welding residual stress engineering by means of an adjusted martensite phase transformation would be highly attractive as detrimental tensile residual stresses may be prevented already during welding without time and cost intensive post processing. The present study shows a synchrotron diffraction analysis of a martensitic steel subjected to thermo-mechanical load cycles. Experiments were conducted regarding the microstructural strain response during the austenite to martensite transformation. The strains are a function of the temperature and the specific loads applied during cooling. The relation between the transformation plasticity of the material, the amount of martensite formed and the arising strains can thus be assessed. The lattice plane specific strains were compared to experimental findings from (macro) dilatation tests. It is shown that the microscopic material behavior differs remarkably from the one observed on the macroscopic scale, what leads to characteristic residual stresses in the material. T2 - Visual-JW 2019 & WSE 2019 The 5th International Symposium on Visualization in Joining & Welding Science through Advanced Measurements and Simulation & The 8th International Conference of Welding Science and Engineering CY - Osaka, Japan DA - 21.11.2019 KW - Martensite KW - Synchrotron KW - Dilatometry KW - Residual stress KW - Phase transformation PY - 2019 AN - OPUS4-49768 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Lausch, Thomas A1 - Schröpfer, Dirk A1 - Hannemann, Andreas T1 - In-situ Observation of Stress Evolution and Cracking during High Strength Steel Welding N2 - Residual stresses are crucial when assessing the performance of welded components. The present work deals with the possibilities of transferring the real-life boundary conditions of welding, which influence the residual stress, into the laboratory. The possibilities of a test system with a load capacity of 2 MN specifically developed for online monitoring of stress formation and cracking are shown. Due to the structural design, global process, geometry and material-dependent stresses are induced, which can be quantified in-situ during welding and post weld heat treatment. Examples are presented how the conditions to be found during production are simulated in the laboratory. It is shown how welding residual stresses in high-strength steels are affected by the heat control. Elevated working temperatures significantly increase the tensile residual stresses in the heat affected zone (HAZ). The effect of mechanical stresses resulting from welding on stress relief cracking is demonstrated by the example of a creep resistant steel. Reheat cracks were monitored online during post weld heat treatment. T2 - Visual-JW 2019 & WSE 2019 The 5th International Symposium on Visualization in Joining & Welding Science through Advanced Measurements and Simulation & The 8th International Conference of Welding Science and Engineering CY - Osaka, Japan DA - 21.11.2019 KW - Residual stress KW - Restraint KW - Welding KW - Large-scale test KW - Reheat cracking PY - 2019 SP - 83 EP - 84 PB - SEIEI Printing Co., Ltd CY - Osaka, Japan AN - OPUS4-49773 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Serrano-Munoz, Itziar A1 - Fritsch, Tobias A1 - Mishurova, Tatiana A1 - Trofimov, Anton A1 - Apel, D. A1 - Ulbricht, Alexander A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Hesse, René A1 - Evans, Alexander A1 - Bruno, Giovanni T1 - On the interplay of microstructure and residual stress in LPBF IN718 N2 - The relationship between residual stresses and microstructure associated with a laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) IN718 alloy has been investigated on specimens produced with three different scanning strategies (unidirectional Y-scan, 90° XY-scan, and 67° Rot-scan). Synchrotron X-ray energy-dispersive diffraction (EDXRD) combined with optical profilometry was used to study residual stress (RS) distribution and distortion upon removal of the specimens from the baseplate. The microstructural characterization of both the bulk and the nearsurface regions was conducted using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). On the top surfaces of the specimens, the highest RS values are observed in the Y-scan specimen and the lowest in the Rot-scan specimen, while the tendency is inversed on the side lateral surfaces. A considerable amount of RS remains in the specimens after their removal from the baseplate, especially in the Y- and Z-direction (short specimen Dimension and building direction (BD), respectively). The distortion measured on the top surface following baseplate thinning and subsequent removal is mainly attributed to the amount of RS released in the build direction. Importantly, it is observed that the additive manufacturing microstructures challenge the use of classic theoretical models for the calculation of diffraction elastic constants (DEC) required for diffraction-based RS analysis. It is found that when the Reuß model is used for the calculation of RS for different crystal planes, as opposed to the conventionally used Kröner model, the results exhibit lower scatter. This is discussed in context of experimental measurements of DEC available in the literature for conventional and additively manufactured Ni-base alloys. KW - L-PBF IN718 material KW - Effect of scanning strategies KW - Near-surface X-ray diffraction KW - Residual stress in AM KW - Distortion upon baseplate removal PY - 2020 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-519460 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-020-05553-y SN - 0022-2461 VL - 56 IS - 9 SP - 5845 EP - 5867 PB - Springer AN - OPUS4-51946 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Serrano-Munoz, Itziar A1 - Ulbricht, Alexander A1 - Fritsch, Tobias A1 - Mishurova, Tatiana A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Hofmann, M. A1 - Wimpory, R. C. A1 - Evans, Alexander A1 - Bruno, Giovanni T1 - Scanning Manufacturing Parameters Determining the Residual Stress State in LPBF IN718 Small Parts N2 - The influence of scan strategy on the residual stress (RS) state of an as-built IN718 alloy produced by means of laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) is investigated. Two scan vector rotations (90°-alternation and 67°-rotation), each produced following two different scan vector lengths (long and short), are used to manufacture four rectangular prisms. Neutron diffraction (ND) and laboratory X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques are used to map the bulk and surface RS state, respectively. The distortion induced upon removal from the baseplate is measured via profilometry. XRD measurements show that the two long scan vector strategies lead to higher RS when compared with the equivalent short scan vector strategies. Also, the 67°-rotation strategies generate lower RS than their 90°-alternation counterparts. Due to the lack of reliable stress-free d0 references, the ND results are analyzed using von Mises stress. In general, ND results show significant RS spatial non-uniformity. A comparison between ND and distortion results indicates that the RS component parallel to the building direction (Z-axis) has a predominant role in the Z-displacement. The use of a stress balance scheme allows to discuss the d0 variability along the length of the specimens, as well as examine the absolute RS state. KW - As-built LPBF IN718 alloy KW - Scan strategy influence KW - Neutron diffraction KW - Residual stress state KW - Stress balance condition KW - Distortion PY - 2021 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-526360 DO - https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.202100158 VL - 23 IS - 7 SP - 158 PB - Wiley AN - OPUS4-52636 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Serrano-Munoz, Itziar A1 - Evans, Alexander A1 - Mishurova, Tatiana A1 - Sprengel, Maximilian A1 - Pirling, T. A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Bruno, Giovanni T1 - The importance of subsurface residual stress in laser powder bed fusion IN718 N2 - The residual stress (RS) in laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) IN718 alloy samples produced using a 67°-rotation scan strategy is investigated via laboratory X-ray diffraction (XRD) and neutron diffraction (ND). The location dependence of the strain-free (d₀) lattice spacing in ND is evaluated using a grid array of coupons extracted from the far-edge of the investigated specimen. No compositional spatial variation is observed in the grid array. The calculated RS fields show considerable non-uniformity, significant stress gradients in the region from 0.6 to 2 mm below the surface, as well as subsurface maxima that cannot be accounted for via XRD. It is concluded that failure to determine such maxima would hamper a quantitative determination of RS fields by means of the stress balance method. KW - Laser powder bed fusion KW - Neutron and X-ray diffraction KW - Residual stress analysis KW - Strain-free lattice references KW - Stress balance PY - 2021 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-532707 DO - https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.202100895 SN - 1615-7508 SN - 1527-2648 VL - 24 IS - 6 SP - 1 EP - 7 PB - Wiley-VCH CY - Weinheim AN - OPUS4-53270 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Mishurova, Tatiana A1 - Thiede, Tobias A1 - Cabeza, Sandra A1 - Bruno, Giovanni A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Nadammal, Naresh T1 - The influence of the support structure on residual stress and distortion in SLM Inconel 718 parts N2 - The effect of support structure and of removal from the base plate on the residual stress state in Selective Laser Melted IN718 parts was studied by means of synchrotron X-ray diffraction. The residual stresses in subsurface region of two elongated prisms in as-built condition and after the cutting from the base plate were determined. One sample was directly built on a base plate and another one on a support structure. Also, the distortion on the top surface due to stress release was measured by contact profilometry. High tensile residual stress values were found, with pronounced stress gradient along the hatching direction. In the sample on support stress redistribution took place after removal of the base plate, as opposed to simple stress relaxation for the sample without support. The sample on support structure showed larger distortion compared to sample without support. We conclude that the use of a support decreases stress values but stress relieving heat treatments are still needed. T2 - User Meeting HZB 2018 CY - Berlin, Germany DA - 14.12.2017 KW - Additive manufacturing KW - Selective laser melting KW - Residual stress KW - Synchrotron X-ray diffraction PY - 2017 AN - OPUS4-43460 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Bruno, Giovanni A1 - Mishurova, Tatiana A1 - Serrano-Munoz, Itziar A1 - Ulbricht, Alexander A1 - Fritsch, Tobias A1 - Sprengel, Maximilian A1 - Evans, Alexander A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Madia, Mauro ED - Bruno, Giovanni T1 - A Critical Discussion on the Diffraction-Based Experimental Determination of Residual Stress in AM Parts N2 - As opposed to reviewing results on experimental determination of residual stress by diffraction, this paper discusses the open issues when dealing with residual stress determination in additive manufactured parts, in particular those manufactured with laser powder bed fusion techniques. Three points are addressed in detail: (a) the proper determination of the strain-free reference d0, (b) the problem of the determination of the principal axes, and (c) the use of the correct diffraction elastic constants. It is shown that all methods to determine the strain-free reference d0 suffer from caveats, and care must be taken in evaluating the most suitable for the problem being tackled. In addition, it is shown that, in some systems, the principal axes do correspond to the geometrical axes of the specimen, but this needs to be systematically checked, especially in the case of uni- or bidirectional hatching strategies. Finally, the need to experimentally determine the proper diffraction elastic constants is underlined, especially in the case of strongly textured specimens, which again depends on the deposition strategy. T2 - ASTM ICAM 2020 – ASTM International Conference on Additive Manufacturing CY - Online meeting DA - 16.11.2020 KW - Additive Manufacturing KW - Diffraction KW - Residual Stress PY - 2020 DO - https://doi.org/10.1520/STP163120190148 VL - STP1631 SP - 122 EP - 138 PB - ASTM International CY - USA AN - OPUS4-51347 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Sprengel, Maximilian A1 - Ulbricht, Alexander A1 - Evans, Alexander A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Sommer, Konstantin A1 - Werner, Tiago A1 - Kelleher, J. A1 - Bruno, Giovanni A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas T1 - Towards the optimization of post-laser powder bed fusion stress-relieve treatments of stainless steel 316L N2 - This study reports on the stress relaxation potential of stress-relieving heat treatments for laser powder bed fused 316L. The residual stress is monitored non-destructively using neutron diffraction before and after the heat treatment. Moreover, the evolution of the microstructure is analysed using scanning electron microscopy. The results show, that a strong relaxation of the residual stress is obtained when applying a heat treatment temperature at 900°C. However, the loss of the cellular substructure needs to be considered when applying this heat treatment strategy. KW - Residual stress KW - Additive manufacturing KW - Neutron diffraction KW - Projekt AGIL - Alterung additiv gefertigter metallischer Materialien und Komponenten PY - 2021 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-536045 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-021-06472-6 SN - 1543-1940 VL - 52 IS - 12 SP - 5342 EP - 5356 PB - Springer CY - Boston AN - OPUS4-53604 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Nadammal, Naresh A1 - Mishurova, Tatiana A1 - Fritsch, Tobias A1 - Serrano-Munoz, Itziar A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Haberland, C. A1 - Portella, Pedro Dolabella A1 - Bruno, Giovanni T1 - Critical role of scan strategies on the development of microstructure, texture, and residual stresses during laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing N2 - Laser based powder bed fusion additive manufacturing offers the flexibility to incorporate standard and userdefined scan strategies in a layer or in between the layers for the customized fabrication of metallic components. In the present study, four different scan strategies and their impact on the development of microstructure, texture, and residual stresses in laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing of a nickel-based superalloy Inconel 718 was investigated. Light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy combined with electron backscatter diffraction, and neutron diffraction were used as the characterization tools. Strong textures with epitaxially grown columnar grains were observed along the build direction for the two individual scan strategies. Patterns depicting the respective scan strategies were visible in the build plane, which dictated the microstructure development in the other planes. An alternating strategy combining the individual strategies in the successive layers and a 67◦ rotational strategy weakened the texture by forming finer microstructural features. Von Mises equivalent stress plots revealed lower stress values and gradients, which translates as lower distortions for the alternating and rotational strategies. Overall results confirmed the scope for manipulating the microstructure, texture, and residual stresses during laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing by effectively controlling the scan strategies. KW - Additive manufacturing KW - Laser powder bed fusion KW - Nickel-based superalloys KW - Scan strategies KW - Residual stresses KW - Microstructure and texture PY - 2021 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101792 VL - 38 SP - 1792 PB - Elsevier B.V. AN - OPUS4-51944 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Thiede, Tobias A1 - Cabeza, Sandra A1 - Mishurova, Tatiana A1 - Nadammal, Naresh A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Bode, Johannes A1 - Haberland, C. A1 - Bruno, Giovanni T1 - An assessment of bulk residual stress in selective laser melted Inconel 718 N2 - Additive Manufacturing (AM) of metals has become industrially viable for a large variety of applications, including aerospace, automotive and medicine. Powder bed techniques such as Selective Laser Melting (SLM) based on layer-by-layer deposition and laser melt enable numerous degrees of freedom for the geometrical design. Developing during the manufacturing process, residual stresses may limit the application of SLM parts by reducing the load bearing capacity as well as induce unwanted distortion depending on the boundary conditions specified in manufacturing. The residual stress distribution in the bulk of IN718 elongated prisms produced by SLM was studied non-destructively by means of neutron diffraction. The samples with different scanning strategies, i.e. hatching length, were measured in as-build condition (on a build plate) and after removal from the build plate. The absolute values of all stress components decreased after removal from the build plate. Together with surface scan utilizing a coordinate-measuring machine (CMM), it is possible to link the stress release to the sample distortion. Obtained results indicated different residual stress states for each of the transversal, longitudinal and normal component depending on the thermal gradient in the respective direction. T2 - ECNDT 2018 CY - Göteborg, Sweden DA - 11.06.2018 KW - Residual stress KW - Selective laser melting KW - Neutron diffraction KW - IN718 PY - 2018 UR - http://cdn.ecndt2018.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/ecndt-0315-2018-File001.pdf SP - 1 AN - OPUS4-45325 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Mishurova, Tatiana A1 - Cabeza, Sandra A1 - Thiede, Tobias A1 - Nadammal, Naresh A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Klaus, Manuela A1 - Genzel, Christoph A1 - Haberland, Christoph A1 - Bruno, Giovanni T1 - The influence of the support structure on residual stress and distortion in SLM Inconel 718 parts N2 - The effect of support structure and of removal from the base plate on the residual stress state in selective laser melted IN718 parts was studied by means of synchrotron X-ray diffraction. The residual stresses in subsurface region of two elongated prisms in as-built condition and after removal from the base plate were determined. One sample was directly built on a base plate and another one on a support structure. Also, the distortion on the top surface due to stress release was measured by contact profilometry. High tensile residual stress values were found, with pronounced stress gradient along the hatching direction. In the sample on support, stress redistribution took place after removal from the base plate, as opposed to simple stress relaxation for the sample without support. The sample on support structure showed larger distortion compared to sample without support. We conclude that the use of a support decreases stress values but stress-relieving heat treatments are still needed. KW - Additive manufacturing KW - SLM KW - Residual stress KW - Synchrotron X-ray diffraction KW - IN718 PY - 2018 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-018-4653-9 SN - 1073-5623 VL - 49A IS - 7 SP - 3038 EP - 3046 PB - Springer Sciences & Business Media CY - New York, NY AN - OPUS4-45100 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Bruno, Giovanni A1 - Thiede, Tobias A1 - Mishurova, Tatiana A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Nadammal, Naresh A1 - Bode, Johannes A1 - Cabeza, Sandra T1 - Influence of deposition hatch length on residual stress in selective laser melted Inconel 718 N2 - The present study aims to evaluate the bulk residual stresses in SLM parts by using neutron diffraction measurements performed at E3 line -BER II neutron reactor- of Helmholtz-Zentrum für Materialien und Energie (HZB) Berlin. Together with microstructure characterization and distortion measurements, it is possible to describe the stress state throughout the whole sample. The sample was measured in as-build condition (on a build plate) and after releasing from the build plate. The used material is the nickel based superalloy 718. This alloy is widely used in aerospace and chemical industries due to its superior corrosion and heat resistant properties. Obtained results indicated different residual stress states for each of the transversal, longitudinal and normal component. The normal and transversal component exhibits a rather compressive behavior while the longitudinal was tensile in the center part of the sample and became compressive towards the tip. As expected, the absolute values of all stress components decreased after releasing the sample from the building plate. A surface scan utilizing a coordinate-measuring machine (CMM) allowed us to present top surface distortion before and after releasing. The top surface showed a distortion around ±80µm after releasing. Microstructure evolution in the scanning-building cross-section is largely dominated by columnar grains. In addition, many small random orientated grains are prominent in the regions of a laser overlap during SLM. In summary, for the sample of superalloy 718 manufactured by SLM, a small distortion occurred when removing the sample from the build plate whereby the residual stress state decreases. Moreover, the observed columnar grains in the building direction could give a reason for the lowest stress values in that normal direction. However, the most important parameter controlling the residual stresses is the temperature gradient. Hence, future investigations are planned for a different scan strategy to distribute the laser impact in a more homogenous manner. T2 - WAM2018 CY - Grenoble, France DA - 09.04.2018 KW - Additive manufacturing KW - SLM KW - Residual stress KW - In718 PY - 2018 AN - OPUS4-44694 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kromm, Arne T1 - Residual stress formation in selective laser melted parts of Alloy 718 N2 - Additive manufacturing (AM) by selective laser melting (SLM) offers ample scope for producing geometrically complex parts as compared to the traditional subtractive manufacturing strategies. However, the residual stresses which develop during the process can limit the application of SLM parts because they can reduce the load bearing capacity as well as induce unwanted distortion depending on the boundary conditions specified in manufacturing. This study aims at the characterization of residual stresses in SLM parts by using different measurement techniques. The material used is the nickel based super Alloy 718. Microstructure as well as surface and bulk residual stresses were characterised. For residual stress analysis X-ray, synchrotron and neutron diffraction were applied. The results show different residual stress states dependent on the penetration depth in the sample offered by the different measurement techniques. Samples of Alloy 718 manufactured by SLM process can show high tensile residual stresses in the surface as high as the yield strength of the wrought alloy. Residual stresses in the bulk show considerably lower stress values. T2 - 1st International Congress on Welding, Additive Manufacturing and associated non-destructive testing - ICWAM CY - Metz, France DA - 17.05.2017 KW - Additive Manufacturing KW - Selective Laser Melting KW - Residual stresses PY - 2017 AN - OPUS4-40345 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Schröder, Jakob A1 - Evans, Alexander A1 - Mishurova, Tatiana A1 - Ulbricht, Alexander A1 - Sprengel, Maximilian A1 - Serrano-Munoz, Itziar A1 - Fritsch, Tobias A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas A1 - Bruno, Giovanni T1 - Diffraction-Based Residual Stress Characterization in Laser Additive Manufacturing of Metals N2 - Laser-based additive manufacturing methods allow the production of complex metal structures within a single manufacturing step. However, the localized heat input and the layer-wise manufacturing manner give rise to large thermal gradients. Therefore, large internal stress (IS) during the process (and consequently residual stress (RS) at the end of production) is generated within the parts. This IS or RS can either lead to distortion or cracking during fabrication or in-service part failure, respectively. With this in view, the knowledge on the magnitude and spatial distribution of RS is important to develop strategies for its mitigation. Specifically, diffraction-based methods allow the spatial resolved determination of RS in a non-destructive fashion. In this review, common diffraction-based methods to determine RS in laser-based additive manufactured parts are presented. In fact, the unique microstructures and textures associated to laser-based additive manufacturing processes pose metrological challenges. Based on the literature review, it is recommended to (a) use mechanically relaxed samples measured in several orientations as appropriate strain-free lattice spacing, instead of powder, (b) consider that an appropriate grain-interaction model to calculate diffraction-elastic constants is both material- and texture-dependent and may differ from the conventionally manufactured variant. Further metrological challenges are critically reviewed and future demands in this research field are discussed. KW - Laser-based additive manufacturing KW - Residual stress analysis KW - X-ray and neutron diffraction KW - Diffraction-elastic constants KW - Strain-free lattice spacing PY - 2021 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-538054 DO - https://doi.org/10.3390/met11111830 VL - 11 IS - 11 SP - 1830 PB - MPDI CY - Basel AN - OPUS4-53805 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Serrano-Munoz, Itziar A1 - Pfretzschner, Beate A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Nadammal, Naresh A1 - Kardjilov, N. A1 - Markötter, Henning A1 - Neuwirth, T. A1 - Schulz, M. A1 - Griesche, Axel T1 - High-resolution Bragg-edge neutron radiography detects grain morphology in PBF-LB/M IN718 N2 - One of the main advantages of metal additive manufacturing (MAM) techniques is their ability to produce components with site-specific microstructural features. Nevertheless, microstructural defects and lack of repeatability are still major concerns in MAM. In this study, a laser powder bed fusion (PBF-LB/M) IN718 material, produced using two different scan length vectors, is investigated using Bragg-edge neutron 2D imaging (BENI) combined with electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) analysis. BENI is able to detect, on a macroscopic scale, process-induced changes in texture in a large field of view covering the entire sample (20×80 mm2). In addition, high-resolution BENI (HR-BENI), with a pixel size of 12.8 µm, provides a micro-scale examination of the local variations of texture and grain morphology, otherwise undistinguishable using the standard resolution. As such, HR-BENI offers a straightforward and detailed way of screening the integrity of MAM parts at cm-length scales. KW - Bragg-edge neutron 2D imaging (BENI) KW - Metal additive manufacturing (MAM) KW - IN718 PBF-LB/M KW - Crystallographic texture control KW - Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) PY - 2023 DO - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtla.2023.101827 SN - 2589-1529 VL - 30 SP - 1 EP - 6 PB - Elsevier CY - Amsterdam AN - OPUS4-57819 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Thiede, Tobias A1 - Cabeza, S. A1 - Mishurova, Tatiana A1 - Nadammal, N. A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Bode, Johannes A1 - Haberland, C. A1 - Bruno, Giovanni T1 - Residual stress in selective laser melted Inconel 718: Influence of the removal from base plate and deposition hatch length N2 - The residual stress distribution in IN718 elongated prisms produced by Selective Laser Melting was studied by means of neutron (bulk) and laboratory X-ray (surface) diffraction. Two deposition hatch lengths were considered. A horizontal plane near the top surface (perpendicular to the building direction) and a vertical plane near the lateral surface (parallel to the building direction) were investigated. Samples both in as-built (AB) condition and removed (RE) from the base plate were characterized. While surface stress fields seem constant for AB condition, X-ray diffraction shows stress gradients along the hatch direction in the RE condition. The stress profiles correlate with the distortion maps obtained by tactile probe measurements. Neutron diffraction shows bulk stress gradients for all principal components along the main sample directions. We correlate the observed stress patterns with the hatch length, i.e. with its effect on temperature gradients and heat flow. The bulk stress gradients partially disappear after removal from the baseplate. KW - Residual stress KW - Additive manufacturing KW - Neutron diffraction KW - Selective laser melting KW - Laboratory X-ray diffraction KW - Coordinate measurement machine KW - IN718 PY - 2018 DO - https://doi.org/10.1520/MPC20170119 SN - 2379-1365 VL - 7 IS - 4 SP - 717 EP - 735 PB - ASTM International CY - USA, West Conshohocken AN - OPUS4-46673 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kromm, Arne T1 - Residual stress formation in selective laser melted parts of alloy 718 N2 - Additive Manufacturing (AM) through the Selective Laser Melting (SLM) route offers ample scope for producing geometrically complex parts compared to the conventional subtractive manufacturing strategies. Nevertheless, the residual stresses which develop during the fabrication can limit application of the SLM components by reducing the load bearing capacity and by inducing unwanted distortion, depending on the boundary conditions specified during manufacturing. The present study aims at characterizing the residual stress states in the SLM parts using different diffraction methods. The material used is the nickel based superalloy Inconel 718. Microstructure as well as the surface and bulk residual stresses were characterized. For the residual stress analysis, X-ray, synchrotron and neutron diffraction methods were used. The measurements were performed at BAM, at the EDDI beamline of -BESSY II synchrotron- and the E3 line -BER II neutron reactor- of the Helmholtz-Zentrum für Materialien und Energie (HZB) Berlin. The results reveal significant differences in the residual stress states for the different characterization techniques employed, which indicates a dependence of the residual state on the penetration depth in the sample. For the surface residual stresses, longitudinal and transverse stress components from both X-ray and synchrotron agree well and the obtained values were around the yield strength of the material. Furthermore, synchrotron mapping disclosed gradients along the width and length of the sample for the longitudinal and transverse stress components. On the other hand, lower residual stresses were found in the bulk of the material measured using neutron diffraction. The longitudinal component was tensile and decreased towards the boundary of the sample. In contrast, the normal component was nearly constant and compressive in nature. The transversal component was almost negligible. The results indicate that a stress re-distribution takes place during the deposition of the consecutive layers. Further investigations are planned to study the phenomenon in detail. T2 - Forschungsseminar OvGU Magdeburg CY - Magdeburg, Germany DA - 15.11.2018 KW - Additive Manufacturing KW - Selective Laser Melting KW - Residual Stresses PY - 2018 AN - OPUS4-46876 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Launert, B. A1 - Rhode, Michael A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Pasternak, H. A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas ED - Olden, T.-M. ED - Muransky, O. ED - Edwards, L. T1 - Residual stress influence on the flexural buckling of welded I-girders N2 - The nonlinear analysis became a common tool to precisely assess the load-bearing behavior of steel beam and column members. The failure level is significantly influenced by different types of imperfections, among geometric also structural imperfections (residual stresses). Here are still gaps in the knowledge. Nowadays, 3-D welding simulation developed to a level where it could provide reliable estimation of weld-induced distortion and residual stresses. Nevertheless, modelling and computational effort are still in a less practicable range. In this study a simplified procedure to implement residual welding stresses in continuous large scale members is proposed and the influence on the ultimate limit state of slender members in compression is evaluated for two common structural steel grades. The results showed significant improvements in the utilization of load bearing capacity compared with simplified design methods. The comparatively general approach in this study offers potential for future optimization. T2 - ICRS 2016 - 10th International Conference on Residual Stresses CY - Sydney, Australia DA - 03.07.2016 KW - Stability Design KW - Finit Element Method KW - 2-D Welding Simulation KW - Inherent Strain KW - Plasticity-based Analysis PY - 2016 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-389210 SN - 978-1-94529117-3 SN - 978-1-94529117-6 DO - https://doi.org/10.21741/9781945291173-19 SN - 2474-395X VL - 2 SP - 109 EP - 114 PB - Materials Research Forum LLC CY - Millersville (PA), USA AN - OPUS4-38921 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Rhode, Michael A1 - Launert, B. A1 - Dixneit, Jonny A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas A1 - Pasternak, H. ED - Olden, T.-M. ED - Muransky, O. ED - Edwards, L. T1 - Combining sectioning method and X-ray diffraction for evaluation of residual stresses in welded high strength steel components N2 - Residual stresses and distortions in welded I-girders for steel construction are relevant when evaluating the stability of steel beams and column members. The application of high strength steels allows smaller wall thicknesses compared to conventional steels. Therefore, the risk of buckling has to be considered carefully. Due to the lack of knowledge concerning the residual stresses present after welding in high strength steel components conservative assumptions of their level and distribution is typically applied. In this study I-girders made of steels showing strengths of 355 MPa and 690 MPa were welded with varying heat input. Due to the dimension of the I-girders and the complex geometry the accessibility for residual stress measurement using X-ray diffraction was limited. Therefore, saw cutting accompanied by strain gauge measurement has been used to produce smaller sections appropriate to apply X-ray diffraction. The stress relaxation measured by strain gauges has been added to residual stresses determined by X-ray diffraction to obtain the original stress level and distribution before sectioning. The combination of both techniques can produce robust residual stress values. From practical point of view afford for strain gauge application can be limited to a number of measuring positions solely to record the global amount of stress relaxation. X-ray diffraction can be applied after sectioning to determine the residual stresses with sufficient spatial resolution. T2 - ICRS 2016 - 10th International Conference on Residual Stresses CY - Sydney, Australia DA - 03.07.2016 KW - Welding KW - Residual Stress KW - Sectioning Method KW - X-Ray Diffraction KW - Component Testing PY - 2017 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-389206 SN - 978-1-94529117-3 SN - 978-1-94529117-6 DO - https://doi.org/10.21741/9781945291173-28 SN - 2474-395X VL - 2 SP - 163 EP - 168 PB - Materials Research Forum LLC CY - Millersville (PA), USA AN - OPUS4-38920 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kromm, Arne T1 - Werkstoffsichere Dickblechschweißung und KI N2 - Der Vortrag zeigt, welche Herausforderungen beim Schweißen sogenannter Dickblechverbindungen bestehen und welche Strategien zur Lösung genutzt werden können. Ansätze zur Fehlerprävention werden vorgestellt. Es wird dargestellt, wie KI-basierte Methoden die Fehlererkennung erleichtern. Letztlich werden Potentiale zur effizienten Fehlerbeseitigung aufgezeigt und der Anwendernutzen herausgestellt. T2 - Mitgliederversammlung der Forschungsvereinigung Stahlanwendung e. V. CY - Essen, Germany DA - 17.12.2025 KW - UP-Schweißen KW - Eigenspannungen KW - Künstliche Intelligenz KW - Reparatur PY - 2025 AN - OPUS4-65210 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - THES A1 - Kromm, Arne T1 - Umwandlungsverhalten und Eigenspannungen beim Schweißen neuartiger LTT-Zusatzwerkstoffe N2 - Die Erkenntnis, dass die Phasenumwandlung bei der Schweißeigenspannungsentstehung hochfester Stähle eine bedeutende Rolle spielt, gibt es bereits seit langer Zeit. Bisher existierten jedoch keine Ansätze, diesen Effekt praktisch zur Schweißeigen- spannungskontrolle zu nutzen. Neuartige Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) Legierungen bieten aufgrund ihrer charakteristischen chemischen Zusammensetzung die Möglichkeit, hochfeste Stähle auf deren Festigkeitsniveau zu fügen. Die martensitische Phasenumwandlung soll zudem eine gezielte Einstellung der Schweißeigenspannungen erlauben. Die im Schrifttum vorliegenden Untersuchungen zu diesem Thema sind zwar zahlreich, bieten jedoch nur wenige Erkenntnisse zur Wechselwirkung zwischen der Phasenumwandlung und den resultierenden Schweißeigenspannungen. Zur Klärung dieser Fragestellung wurde basierend auf Literaturauswertungen eine Matrix von LTT-Legierungen verwirklicht, welche hinsichtlich des Gefüges, der mechanischen Eigenschaften und der Umwandlungstemperaturen charakterisiert wurden. Weiterhin konnten im Rahmen dieser Arbeit erstmals In-situ-Beugungsexperimente während des Schweißens unter Anwendung energiedispersiver Methoden realisiert werden. Die Neukonzeption und Verwirklichung einer Schweißvorrichtung speziell für den Einsatz an Synchrotronstrahllinien ermöglichte die bislang einzigartige In-situ-Analyse der Umwandlungsvorgänge während des Schweißens mit LTT-Legierungen. Im Zuge dieser Experimente konnte neben den im Schweißgut vorherrschenden Umwandlungstemperaturen zusätzlich die Umwandlungskinetik dieser Legierungen ermittelt werden. Die Auswirkungen des Umwandlungsverhaltens wurden anhand der Eigenspannungsverteilungen in der Oberfläche variierender Probengeometrien analysiert. Die Ergebnisse verdeutlichen einerseits, dass die mittels der LTT-Legierungen angestrebte Eigenspannungskontrolle tatsächlich möglich ist. Dies zeigt sich insbesondere dann, wenn eine weitgehend freie Schrumpfung der Naht vorliegt. Mit zunehmender Schrumpfbehinderung ergibt sich jedoch eine Verschiebung des Eigenspannungsniveaus in den Zugbereich. Dies ist bei den hier betrachteten Legierungen vornehmlich in Nahtquerrichtung ausgeprägt. Dagegen ist das Eigenspannungsniveau in Nahtlängsrichtung nahezu unabhängig von den Schrumpfbedingungen. Anhand von Eigenspannungstiefengradienten ließ sich feststellen, dass sich die zusätzliche Schrumpfbehinderung in einer Parallelverschiebung des Eigenspannungsniveaus im Schweißgut äußert. Die Anwendung energiedispersiver Beugungsmethoden erlaubte zudem erstmals die Eigenspannungsermittlung in der parallel zum Martensit vorliegenden austenitischen Phase der LTT-Legierungen. Ergebnisse, die unter Laborbedingungen gewonnen werden, bedürfen zumeist der Überprüfung unter realen Fertigungsbedingungen. Zu diesem Zweck wurde ein Bauteilschweißversuch in einer speziellen Großprüfanalage durchgeführt. Unter konstruktiver Schrumpfbehinderung gelang es, die lastabbauende Wirkung eines spezifischen LTT-Schweißzusatzes anhand einer ausgeprägten Spannungsreduktion während des Schweißens zu belegen. Insgesamt wurde der Nachweis erbracht, dass das Konzept der Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) Legierungen zielführend ist und die nachgewiesene Austenit-Martensitumwandlung einen signifikanten Effekt auf das Eigenspannungsniveau ausübt. N2 - It has long been recognized that phase transformation plays a prominent part in the Evolution of welding residual stresses in high-strength steel. But thus far, no approaches have been available to practically utilize this effect for welding residual stress control. Innovative Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) alloys featuring a characteristic chemical composition open up the possibility for joining high strength steels on their own strength level. Furthermore, martensitic phase transformation is supposed to permit deliberate adjustment of the welding residual stresses. Even though numerous investigations can be found in the literature on this issue, they provide only little insight into the interaction between Phase transformation and resulting welding residual stresses. In order to clarify the problem presented, a matrix of LTT alloys was defined based on evaluated literature. The alloys were characterized with respect to their microstructure, mechanical properties and transformation temperature. Furthermore, it was possible within the scope of this study to realize in-situ experiments during welding using energy-dispersive diffraction methods. The new design and implementation of a welding setup specifically for use at synchrotron beamlines enabled the in-situ diffraction analysis of Transformation processes. In the course of these experiments it could be managed to determine the Transformation temperatures prevailing in the LTT weld metal. In addition the Transformation kinetics of these alloys could be analyzed. The effects of the transformation behavior were analyzed based on the residual stress distributions at the surface of varying specimen geometries. The results illustrate on the one hand that the desired residual stress control by using LTT alloys is actually feasible. This is particularly found in cases with largely free shrinkage of the weld. With increasing shrinkage restraint, however, a shift of the residual stress level into the area of tension is seen to occur. This is observed for the considered alloys to be particularly pronounced in transverse direction of the weld. By contrast, the residual stress level in longitudinal weld direction is nearly independent of the shrinkage conditions. With the help of residual stress depth gradients it could be established that the additional shrinkage restraint manifests itself in a parallel shift of the residual stress level in the weld metal. Application of energy-dispersive diffraction methods additionally allowed it for the first time to determine residual stresses in the austenitic phase of the LTT alloy which is present parallel to martensite. Results gained under laboratory conditions mostly need to be verified under real fabrication conditions. For this purpose, a component weld test was performed in a special large-scale testing facility. Under structural shrinkage restraint, the load relieving effect of a specific LTT welding filler material could be proven by means of a pronounced stress reduction during welding. Overall, evidence was furnished that the concept of Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) alloys is successful and that the proven austenite-martensite transformation exerts a significant effect on the residual stress level. T3 - BAM Dissertationsreihe - 72 KW - residual stresses KW - Synchrotron diffraction KW - phase transformation KW - martensite KW - Eigenspannungen KW - LTT-Zusatzwerkstoff KW - Martensit KW - Phasenumwandlung KW - Synchrotronbeugung KW - LTT filler material PY - 2011 UR - https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-861 SN - 978-3-9813853-9-7 SN - 1613-4249 VL - 72 SP - 1 EP - 223 PB - Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) CY - Berlin AN - OPUS4-86 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Falkenreck, Thora E. A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Böllinghaus, Thomas T1 - Investigation of physically simulated weld HAZ and CCT diagram of HSLA armour steel N2 - The phase transformation under various cooling rates and in different HAZ regions for high-strength armour steel was analysed by dilatometry. To develop a continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagram, the samples were heated up to a peak temperature of 1250 °C to achieve a coarse-grained microstructure and then cooled down with a cooling time t 8/5 varying from 3 to 240 s. Analysis of dilatation curves revealed the austenite decomposition process, during which transformation temperatures were determined. The results showed martensitic transformations for all welding-relevant cooling times. Furthermore, to analyse different heat-affected subzones of the weld, the peak temperature was varied between 550 and 1250 °C at a constant cooling time t 8/5 of 6 s. The simulated coarse-grained heat-affected zone (CGHAZ) and fine-grained-heat affected zone (FGHAZ) showed only martensitic transformations with transformation temperatures below 400 °C. The steel exhibited an inhomogeneous hardness with hardening in the CGHAZ and FGHAZ and softening in the intercritical and subcritical HAZ. The physically simulated microstructure was validated by a real hybrid laser-arc weld microstructure. KW - Dilatometry KW - High-strength steels KW - CCT diagrams KW - Heat-affected zone PY - 2018 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-017-0511-4 SN - 0043-2288 SN - 1878-6669 VL - 62 IS - 1 SP - 47 EP - 54 PB - Springer AN - OPUS4-44716 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Steppan, Enrico A1 - Kromm, Arne A1 - Kannengießer, Thomas T1 - High-energy synchrotron study of the stress-strain behavior of hydrogen-charged high strength steel N2 - The ambition for light weight construction while simultaneously increasing the loading capacity is a main aim of many industries such as crane, vehicle, bridge construction, shipbuilding and plant construction. This aim is achieved by application of high strength structural steels with yield strengths of up to 1300 MPa. The plate thickness can be reduced and consequently the service load is increased. High strength structural steels are quenched and tempered and/or even thermo-mechanically processed. Their superior properties are due to precipitations formed by micro alloying elements finely dispersed in a martensitic matrix. The aim of this study was to observe the influence of hydrogen in the microstructure of high strength structural steel with the yield strength of 1300 MPa by using diffraction methods. Energy dispersive X-ray diffraction (EDXRD) available at the EDDI beam line of the HZB in Berlin Germany was utilized to compare the stress-strain behavior of samples exhibiting varying amounts of hydrogen during tensile loading. T2 - Visual-JW2012 - International Symposium on Visualization in Joining and Welding Science through Advanced Measurements and Simulation CY - Osaka, Japan DA - 28.11.2012 KW - High strength structural steel KW - Hydrogen diffusion KW - Hydrogen assisted cold cracking KW - Energy dispersive X-ray diffraction PY - 2012 IS - IWIS-17 SP - 228 EP - 229 PB - Joining and Welding Research Institute (JWRI) CY - Osaka AN - OPUS4-27396 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - GEN A1 - Kromm, Arne ED - Lexow, J. ED - Kishi, T. ED - Kitagawa, M. ED - Böllinghaus, Thomas T1 - Controlling welding residual stresses by means of alloy design N2 - Residual stresses are a major consequence of many manufacturing processes. In particular, welding residual stresses can affect the processing properties and durability of a component. Especially when welding high strength steels in complex structures, showing high restraint intensities, tensile residual stresses can easily reach the level of the yield strength and cause cracking. Therefore, in this study approaches have been evaluated to control the level and distribution of residual stresses already during the welding process using suitable alloy concepts with reduced phase transformation temperatures. This issue affects primarily the mechanisms between transformation temperature, transformation kinetics and resulting residual stresses. The present work includes discussion and approaches, how these phenomena can be evaluated using an appropriate in-situ monitoring. For that purpose, investigations using high energy synchrotron diffraction have been carried out. Initially, diffraction analyses have been made during simple thermal cycles, focusing on the observation of phase transformation kinetics, i.e. transformation temperatures and temperature dependent phase formation and contents. Furthermore, welding experiments incorporating an external shrinkage restraint show how the stress formation during cooling is influenced by superimposed mechanical and thermal impacts compared to conventional filler material. The results demonstrate that residual stresses can be effectively controlled by means of an adjusted alloy design. Prior to experimental results a review is presented including the mechanisms of stress reduction due to phase transformation during welding. Beside this the progress in designing special alloys for controlling residual stresses is reflected. KW - Residual stress KW - Martensite KW - Phase transformation KW - Welding PY - 2012 SN - 978-3-642-23347-0 SN - 978-3-642-23348-7 DO - https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-23348-7 SP - 23 EP - 33 PB - Springer CY - Berlin Heidelberg AN - OPUS4-25520 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Kromm, Arne T1 - Exploring the interaction of phase transformation and residual stress during welding by synchrotron diffraction N2 - Controlling the level of mostly detrimental residual stresses already during the welding process would be highly attractive as time and cost consuming post processing may be prevented. Therefore, in this study, the approach using suitable alloy concepts with reduced phase transformation temperatures has been evaluated concerning the interactions between transformation temperature, transformation kinetics and resulting residual stresses. Ideal tools for observing these phenomena in-situ are diffraction techniques. For that purpose, a special setup was developed allowing for localized observation of phase transformation kinetics during a real welding process by energy dispersive synchrotron diffraction (EDXRD). In the present work, this setup was successfully applied for the first time in order to characterize a selection of alloys especially designed for residual stress control. The results demonstrate that in-process observation is highly suitable for characterizing and discussing phase transformation sensitive phenomena like residual stress formation. Furthermore, it was proven that residual stresses can be effectively controlled by means of an adjusted alloy design. KW - Austenite KW - Diffraction KW - Martensite KW - Residual stresses KW - Transformation KW - X-rays PY - 2012 SN - 0043-2288 SN - 1878-6669 VL - 56 IS - 09/10 SP - 2 EP - 11 PB - Springer CY - Oxford AN - OPUS4-27482 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Kromm, Arne T1 - Effect of a High-Performance Modified Spray Arc MAG Process on Load-Oriented Repair of Old Steel Structures N2 - Steel structures erected in the late 19th and early 20th centuries still constitute a substantial part of today’s technical infrastructure. A significant proportion of bridge and engineering structures have been in service for more than 80 or even 100 years and are subjected to continuously increasing traffic volumes, axle loads, and dynamic actions. In view of these rising service demands, load-oriented and structurally adequate repair strategies are essential to ensure long-term structural integrity while preserving the existing building stock in a sustainable manner. As historical steel constructions were predominantly designed for riveted or bolted joints, the subsequent implementation of welded repair or strengthening measures represents a particular challenge. In addition to the specific material characteristics of old mild steels, welding-induced residual stresses and microstructural alterations must be carefully considered, as they can significantly affect load-bearing capacity and the overall structure performance. Consequently, repair concepts must not only restore geometry but also be adapted to the actual stress conditions and service requirements of the structure. Against this background, the present study investigates MAG welding trials on mixed joints between old and modern structural steels. The groove opening angle was systematically varied between 50° and 30° in order to analyse the influence of joint geometry on weld metal volume, heat input, and the resulting residual stress state. Furthermore, advanced high-performance arc processes, such as a modified spray arc mode, were applied to enable controlled and reduced heat input. The objective is to minimise welding-induced residual stresses through process and joint design optimisation, thereby providing a technically sound and load-oriented repair strategy for existing old steel structures suitable for long-term service. T2 - IIW Intermediate Meeting, Commission II-E CY - Bangkok, Thailand DA - 16.03.2026 KW - Historic mild steel KW - Weldability KW - High strength steel PY - 2026 AN - OPUS4-65745 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER -