TY - JOUR A1 - Butt, H.-J. A1 - Cappella, Brunero A1 - Kappl, M. T1 - Force measurements with the atomic force microscope - Technique, interpretation and applications N2 - The atomic force microscope (AFM) is not only a tool to image the topography of solid surfaces at high resolution. It can also be used to measure force-versus-distance curves. Such curves, briefly called force curves, provide valuable information on local material properties such as elasticity, hardness, Hamaker constant, adhesion and surface charge densities. For this reason the measurement of force curves has become essential in different fields of research such as surface science, materials engineering, and biology. Another application is the analysis of surface forces per se. Some of the most fundamental questions in colloid and surface science can be addressed directly with the AFM: What are the interactions between particles in a liquid? How can a dispersion be stabilized? How do surfaces in general and particles in particular adhere to each other? Particles and surfaces interactions have major implications for friction and lubrication. Force measurements on single molecules involving the rupture of single chemical bonds and the stretching of polymer chains have almost become routine. The structure and properties of confined liquids can be addressed since force measurements provide information on the energy of a confined liquid film. After the review of Cappella [B. Cappella, G. Dietler, Surf. Sci. Rep. 34 (1999) 1–104] 6 years of intense development have occurred. In 1999, the AFM was used only by experts to do force measurements. Now, force curves are used by many AFM researchers to characterize materials and single molecules. The technique and our understanding of surface forces has reached a new level of maturity. In this review we describe the technique of AFM force measurements. Important experimental issues such as the determination of the spring constant and of the tip radius are discussed. Current state of the art in analyzing force curves obtained under different conditions is presented. Possibilities, perspectives but also open questions and limitations are discussed. KW - AFM KW - Force curves KW - Surface forces KW - Atomic force microscope PY - 2005 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfrep.2005.08.003 SN - 0167-5729 VL - 59 IS - 1-6 SP - 1 EP - 152 PB - North-Holland CY - Amsterdam AN - OPUS4-11181 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Cappella, Brunero T1 - Dynamic Plowing Lithography T2 - Seminar am MPI für Polymerforschung CY - Mainz, Germany DA - 2003-05-12 PY - 2003 AN - OPUS4-2919 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Cappella, Brunero A1 - Sturm, Heinz T1 - Lithography of Polymer Surfaces using SPM T2 - Frühjahrstagung DPG CY - Regensburg, Germany DA - 2002-03-13 PY - 2002 AN - OPUS4-6529 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Cappella, Brunero A1 - Sturm, Heinz T1 - Stiffness and Adhesion Characterisation of Nanolithographed PMMA T2 - Frühjahrstagung DPG CY - Regensburg, Germany DA - 2002-03-13 PY - 2002 AN - OPUS4-6530 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Cappella, Brunero A1 - Sturm, Heinz A1 - Schulz, Eckhard T1 - Nanolithography on Polymers using the AFM T2 - Dreiländertagung für Elektronenmikroskopie CY - Innsbruck, Austria DA - 2001-11-09 PY - 2001 AN - OPUS4-6516 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Cappella, Brunero A1 - Sturm, Heinz T1 - Lithography of Polymer Surfaces using Scanning Probe Microscopy T2 - The 2nd International Conference on Scanning Probe Microscopy of Polymers CY - Weingarten, Germany DA - 2001-07-21 PY - 2001 AN - OPUS4-6517 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Cappella, Brunero T1 - DPL auf Polymeroberflächen T2 - Humboldt Universität Berlin CY - Berlin, Germany DA - 2002-11-11 PY - 2002 AN - OPUS4-7437 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Cappella, Brunero T1 - Dynamic Plowing Lithography - Punkt und Linie zu Fläche T2 - - CY - Munich, Germany DA - 2001-07-18 PY - 2001 AN - OPUS4-7854 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Cappella, Brunero T1 - Atomic force microscope as a tool for the modification and analysis of surfaces KW - AFM KW - Lithography KW - Surface forces PY - 2004 VL - 1 SP - 1 EP - 30 PB - Transworld Research Network CY - Trivandrum AN - OPUS4-4745 LA - eng AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER - TY - CONF A1 - Cappella, Brunero T1 - Dynamic Plowing Lithography - Punkt und Linie zu Fläche T2 - - CY - Ulm, Germany DA - 2001-07-16 PY - 2001 AN - OPUS4-7499 LA - deu AD - Bundesanstalt fuer Materialforschung und -pruefung (BAM), Berlin, Germany ER -