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  <doc>
    <id>50944</id>
    <completedYear/>
    <publishedYear>2020</publishedYear>
    <thesisYearAccepted/>
    <language>eng</language>
    <pageFirst>279</pageFirst>
    <pageLast>291</pageLast>
    <pageNumber/>
    <edition/>
    <issue/>
    <volume>138</volume>
    <type>article</type>
    <publisherName>Elsevier B.V.</publisherName>
    <publisherPlace/>
    <creatingCorporation/>
    <contributingCorporation/>
    <belongsToBibliography>1</belongsToBibliography>
    <completedDate>--</completedDate>
    <publishedDate>--</publishedDate>
    <thesisDateAccepted>--</thesisDateAccepted>
    <title language="eng">Evaluating the explosion severity of nanopowders: International standards versus reality</title>
    <abstract language="eng">The maximum explosion overpressure and the maximum rate of pressure rise, which characterize thedust explosion severity, are commonly measured in apparatuses and under specific conditions defined byinternational standards. However, those standards conditions, designed for micropowders, may not befully adapted to nanoparticles. Investigations were conducted on different nanopowders (nanocellulose,carbon black, aluminum) to illustrate their specific behaviors and highlight the potential inadequacyof the standards. The influence of the sample preparation was explored. Various testing procedureswere compared, focusing on the dust cloud turbulence and homogeneity. Dust dispersion experimentsevidenced the importance of the characterization of the dust cloud after dispersion, due to the frag-mentation of agglomerates, using metrics relevant with nanoparticles reactivity (e.g. surface diameterinstead of volume diameter). Moreover, the overdriving phenomenon (when the experimental resultsbecome dependent of the ignition energy), already identified for micropowders, can be exacerbated fornanoparticles due to their low minimum ignition energy and to the high energy used under standardconditions. It was evidenced that for highly sensitive nanopowders, pre-ignition phenomenon can occur.Finally, during severe explosions and due to a too long opening delay of the ‘fast acting valve’, the flamecan go back to the dust container.</abstract>
    <parentTitle language="eng">Process Safety and Environmental Protection</parentTitle>
    <identifier type="doi">10.1016/j.psep.2020.04.011</identifier>
    <enrichment key="date_peer_review">29.06.2020</enrichment>
    <author>A. Santandrea</author>
    <author>A. Vignes</author>
    <author>Arne Krietsch</author>
    <author>D. Brunello</author>
    <author>L. Perrin</author>
    <author>A. Laurent</author>
    <author>O. Dufaud</author>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Dust explosions</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Gas explosions</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Minimum ignition temperature</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Hybrid mixtures</value>
    </subject>
    <collection role="ddc" number="624">Ingenieurbau</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2 Prozess- und Anlagensicherheit</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2.1 Sicherheit von Energieträgern</collection>
    <collection role="themenfelder" number="">Infrastruktur</collection>
    <collection role="themenfelder" number="">Fire Science</collection>
    <collection role="literaturgattung" number="">Verlagsliteratur</collection>
    <collection role="fulltextaccess" number="">Datei im Netzwerk der BAM verfügbar ("Closed Access")</collection>
  </doc>
  <doc>
    <id>54077</id>
    <completedYear/>
    <publishedYear>2022</publishedYear>
    <thesisYearAccepted/>
    <language>eng</language>
    <pageFirst>1</pageFirst>
    <pageLast>18</pageLast>
    <pageNumber/>
    <edition/>
    <issue/>
    <volume>74</volume>
    <type>article</type>
    <publisherName>Elsevier Ltd.</publisherName>
    <publisherPlace/>
    <creatingCorporation/>
    <contributingCorporation/>
    <belongsToBibliography>1</belongsToBibliography>
    <completedDate>--</completedDate>
    <publishedDate>--</publishedDate>
    <thesisDateAccepted>--</thesisDateAccepted>
    <title language="eng">Quasi-static dispersion of dusts for the determination of lower explosion limits of hybrid mixtures</title>
    <abstract language="eng">Knowledge of explosion limiting concentration of explosible materials is necessary forthe design of explosion protection measures. Currently employed methods of testing MEC of a dust cloud or LEL of a hybrid mixture are based on arbitrary assumptionsand possess technical limitations that often lead to values of MEC/LEL, which are unrealistically low or poorly reproducible. This contribution presents an improved method for experimental determination of MEC of a combustible dust cloud or LEL of a flammable gas or hybrid mixture. The new setup operates under laminar conditions and allows a uniform suspension of dust particles in an open top acrylic glass tube. Dust concentration is measured with the help of infrared sensors installed a few centimeters above and below the ignition source. In order to evaluate the dependence of MEC on flow front velocity, MEC of lycopodium was determined at four flow velocities. The results show that the flow field intensity does not significantly influence the MEC of lycopodium for the flow ranges tested in this work. Moreover, LEL of hybrid mixtures of lycopodium and methane was also tested at flow velocities of 4.7 cm/s, 5.8 cm/s, 7 cm/s and 11 cm/s and compared with the values obtained from other sources. The results suggest that the requirement of high energy pyrotechnical igniter may be relinquished, provided that a truly homogeneous suspension of dust particles could be achieved. Moreover, the effect of relative amount of dust and gas, on the course of ignition and flame propagation in hybrid mixtures at their LEL, was studied by the help of high speed videos. For hybrid mixtures of carbonaceous dusts (like lycopodium) at their LEL, ignition occurs in the gas phase, however, flame propagation is only possible through a two-way interaction of dust and gas during the course of combustion.</abstract>
    <parentTitle language="eng">Jounal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries</parentTitle>
    <identifier type="doi">10.1016/j.jlp.2021.104640</identifier>
    <identifier type="issn">0950-4230</identifier>
    <enrichment key="opus.source">publish</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="date_peer_review">20.12.2021</enrichment>
    <author>Z. Abbas</author>
    <author>D. Gabel</author>
    <author>Arne Krietsch</author>
    <author>U. Krause</author>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Dust explosions</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Gas explosions</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Lower explosion limit</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Hybrid mixtures</value>
    </subject>
    <collection role="ddc" number="624">Ingenieurbau</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2 Prozess- und Anlagensicherheit</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2.1 Sicherheit von Energieträgern</collection>
    <collection role="themenfelder" number="">Infrastruktur</collection>
    <collection role="themenfelder" number="">Fire Science</collection>
    <collection role="literaturgattung" number="">Verlagsliteratur</collection>
    <collection role="fulltextaccess" number="">Datei im Netzwerk der BAM verfügbar ("Closed Access")</collection>
  </doc>
  <doc>
    <id>54095</id>
    <completedYear/>
    <publishedYear>2020</publishedYear>
    <thesisYearAccepted/>
    <language>eng</language>
    <pageFirst>750</pageFirst>
    <pageLast>764</pageLast>
    <pageNumber/>
    <edition/>
    <issue/>
    <volume/>
    <type>conferenceobject</type>
    <publisherName>Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt</publisherName>
    <publisherPlace/>
    <creatingCorporation/>
    <contributingCorporation/>
    <belongsToBibliography>0</belongsToBibliography>
    <completedDate>--</completedDate>
    <publishedDate>--</publishedDate>
    <thesisDateAccepted>--</thesisDateAccepted>
    <title language="eng">Quasi-static dispersion of dusts for the determination of lower explosion limits of hybrid mixtures</title>
    <abstract language="eng">Knowledge of explosion limiting concentration of explosible materials is necessary for the design of explosion protection measures. Currently employed methods of testing MEC of a dust cloud or LEL of a hybrid mixture are based on arbitrary assumptions and possess technical limitations that often lead to values of MEC/LEL, which are unrealistically low or poorly reproducible. &#13;
This contribution presents an improved method for experimental determination of MEC of a combustible dust cloud or LEL of a flammable gas or hybrid mixture. The new set-up operates under laminar conditions and allows a uniform suspension of dust particles in an open top acrylic glass tube. Dust concentration is measured with the help of infrared sensors installed a few centimeters above and below the ignition source.  &#13;
In order to evaluate the dependence of MEC on flow front velocity, MEC of lycopodium was determined at four flow velocities. The results show that the flow field intensity does not significantly influence the MEC of lycopodium for the flow ranges tested in this work. Moreover, LEL of hybrid mixtures of lycopodium and methane was also tested at flow velocities of 4.7 cm/s, 5.8 cm/s, 7 cm/s and 11 cm/s and compared with the values obtained from other sources. The results suggest that the requirement of high energy pyrotechnical igniter may be relinquished, provided that a truly homogeneous suspension of dust particles could be achieved. &#13;
Moreover, the effect of relative amount of dust and gas, on the course of ignition and flame propagation in hybrid mixtures at their LEL, was studied by the help of high speed videos. For hybrid mixtures of carbonaceous dusts (like lycopodium) at their LEL, ignition occurs in the gas phase, however, flame propagation is only possible through a two-way interaction of dust and gas during the course of combustion.</abstract>
    <parentTitle language="eng">Proceedings of the 13th Symposium International Symposium on Hazards, Prevention and Mitigation of Industrial Explosions</parentTitle>
    <identifier type="doi">10.7795/810.20200724</identifier>
    <identifier type="urn">urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-540955</identifier>
    <enrichment key="eventName">13th Symposium International Symposium on Hazards, Prevention and Mitigation of Industrial Explosions  (ISHPMIE)</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="eventPlace">Online meeting</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="eventStart">27.07.2020</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="eventEnd">31.07.2020</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="opus.source">publish</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="opus.doi.autoCreate">false</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="opus.urn.autoCreate">true</enrichment>
    <licence>Creative Commons - CC BY-ND - Namensnennung - Keine Bearbeitungen 4.0 International</licence>
    <author>Arne Krietsch</author>
    <author>U. Krause</author>
    <author>D. Gabel</author>
    <author>Z. Abbas</author>
    <author>O. Dufaud</author>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Dust explosions</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Gas explosions</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Lower explosion limit</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Hybrid mixtures</value>
    </subject>
    <collection role="ddc" number="624">Ingenieurbau</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2 Prozess- und Anlagensicherheit</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2.1 Sicherheit von Energieträgern</collection>
    <collection role="themenfelder" number="">Infrastruktur</collection>
    <collection role="themenfelder" number="">Fire Science</collection>
    <collection role="fulltextaccess" number="">Datei für die Öffentlichkeit verfügbar ("Open Access")</collection>
    <collection role="literaturgattung" number="">Graue Literatur</collection>
    <collection role="unnumberedseries" number="">Wissenschaftliche Artikel der BAM</collection>
    <thesisPublisher>Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM)</thesisPublisher>
    <file>https://opus4.kobv.de/opus4-bam/files/54095/Quasi-static dispersion of dusts - ISHPMIE 2020.pdf</file>
  </doc>
  <doc>
    <id>56856</id>
    <completedYear/>
    <publishedYear>2023</publishedYear>
    <thesisYearAccepted/>
    <language>eng</language>
    <pageFirst>1</pageFirst>
    <pageLast>54</pageLast>
    <pageNumber/>
    <edition/>
    <issue/>
    <volume>82</volume>
    <type>article</type>
    <publisherName>Elsevier</publisherName>
    <publisherPlace>Amsterdam</publisherPlace>
    <creatingCorporation/>
    <contributingCorporation/>
    <belongsToBibliography>1</belongsToBibliography>
    <completedDate>--</completedDate>
    <publishedDate>--</publishedDate>
    <thesisDateAccepted>--</thesisDateAccepted>
    <title language="eng">A review on hybrid mixture explosions: Safety parameters, explosion regimes and criteria, flame characteristics</title>
    <abstract language="eng">The hybrid mixture of combustible dusts and flammable gases/vapours widely exist in various industries, including mining, petrochemical, metallurgical, textile and pharmaceutical. It may pose a higher explosion risk than gas/vapor or dust/mist explosions since the hybrid explosions can still be initiated even though both the gas and the dust concentration are lower than their lower explosion limit (LEL) values. Understanding the explosion threat of hybrid mixtures not only contributes to the inherent safety and sustainability of industrial process design, but promotes the efficiency of loss prevention and mitigation. To date, however, there is no test standard with reliable explosion criteria available to determine the safety parameters of all types of hybrid mixture explosions, nor the flame propagation and quenching mechanism or theoretical explanation behind these parameters. This review presents a state-of-the-art overview of the comprehensive understanding of hybrid mixture explosions mainly in an experimental study level; thereby, the main limitations and challenges to be faced are explored. The discussed main contents include the experimental measurement for the safety parameters of hybrid mixtures (i.e., explosion sensitivity and severity parameters) via typical test apparatuses, explosion regime and criterion of hybrid mixtures, the detailed flame propagation/quenching characteristics behind the explosion severities/sensitivities of hybrid mixtures. This work aims to summarize the essential basics of experimental studies, and to provide the perspectives based on the current research gaps to understand the explosion hazards of hybrid mixtures in-depth.</abstract>
    <parentTitle language="eng">Journal of loss prevention in the process industries</parentTitle>
    <identifier type="doi">10.1016/j.jlp.2022.104969</identifier>
    <identifier type="issn">0950-4230</identifier>
    <enrichment key="opus.source">publish</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="date_peer_review">27.02.2023</enrichment>
    <author>Dejian Wu</author>
    <author>P. Zhao</author>
    <author>Stefan Spitzer</author>
    <author>Arne Krietsch</author>
    <author>P. Amyotte</author>
    <author>U. Krause</author>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Hybrid mixtures</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Explosion protection</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Safety characteristics</value>
    </subject>
    <collection role="ddc" number="624">Ingenieurbau</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2 Prozess- und Anlagensicherheit</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2.1 Sicherheit von Energieträgern</collection>
    <collection role="themenfelder" number="">Infrastruktur</collection>
    <collection role="literaturgattung" number="">Verlagsliteratur</collection>
    <collection role="fulltextaccess" number="">Datei im Netzwerk der BAM verfügbar ("Closed Access")</collection>
  </doc>
  <doc>
    <id>62486</id>
    <completedYear/>
    <publishedYear>2025</publishedYear>
    <thesisYearAccepted/>
    <language>eng</language>
    <pageFirst>1</pageFirst>
    <pageLast>6</pageLast>
    <pageNumber/>
    <edition/>
    <issue/>
    <volume>94</volume>
    <type>article</type>
    <publisherName>Elsevier Ltd.</publisherName>
    <publisherPlace/>
    <creatingCorporation/>
    <contributingCorporation/>
    <belongsToBibliography>1</belongsToBibliography>
    <completedDate>--</completedDate>
    <publishedDate>--</publishedDate>
    <thesisDateAccepted>--</thesisDateAccepted>
    <title language="eng">Validation of a new standard for safety characteristics of hybrid mixtures: HYBRID II</title>
    <abstract language="eng">Safety characteristics are used for the safe operation of processes. Designing protection measures requires explosion characteristics to be determined, namely the maximum explosion pressure and the maximum rate of pressure rise. Safety characteristics of single-phase components (solid, liquid or gas) can be determined according to standards that were developed 40 years ago and are continuously improved. For hybrid mixtures containing a flammable gas and a combustible dust there has been an approach in the 80s but it has never been improved nor applied ever since (ISO 6184-3). A new approach by four German research facilities and the German Institute for standardization (DIN) with the aim of developing a new standard was launched in 2019. In 2022 the key findings led to a first international round robin test with eleven participating facilities from seven countries. The dust component was corn starch and methane was chosen as gas component. In order to strengthen the data foundation before finalizing and publishing the new standard, a second round robin test was initiated with hydrogen as gas component and lycopodium as dust. The paper will summarize the findings and their influence on the new standard.</abstract>
    <parentTitle language="eng">Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries</parentTitle>
    <identifier type="doi">10.1016/j.jlp.2025.105560</identifier>
    <identifier type="issn">1873-3352</identifier>
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Res."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jlp.2025.105560_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/srin.201900108","article-title":"Reduction of iron oxides with hydrogen","author":"Spreitzer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Steel Res. Int."},{"key":"10.1016\/j.jlp.2025.105560_bib24","article-title":"- challenges and opportunities to mitigate the catastrophic thermal runaway of high-energy batteries","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Energy Mater."},{"year":"1994","series-title":"1994-07-09 Explosion eines Staub-\/Luftgemisches mit Folgebrand","key":"10.1016\/j.jlp.2025.105560_bib25"}],"container-title":["Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S095042302500018X?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S095042302500018X?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,27]],"date-time":"2025-01-27T10:38:40Z","timestamp":1737974320000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S095042302500018X"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]},"references-count":24,"alternative-id":["S095042302500018X"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jlp.2025.105560","relation":{},"ISSN":["0950-4230"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"0950-4230"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Validation of a new standard for safety characteristics of hybrid mixtures: HYBRID II","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jlp.2025.105560","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2025 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}],"article-number":"105560"}}</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="local_crossrefDocumentType">journal-article</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="opus.source">publish</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="date_peer_review">03.03.2025</enrichment>
    <author>Stefan Spitzer</author>
    <author>Wojciech Adamus</author>
    <author>Enis Askar</author>
    <author>Alexander Benke</author>
    <author>Sebastian D’Hyon</author>
    <author>Zdzislaw Dyduch</author>
    <author>Olivier Dufaud</author>
    <author>Friederike Flemming</author>
    <author>Nicole Gehle</author>
    <author>Michael Hohenberger</author>
    <author>Vojtech Jankuj</author>
    <author>Wang Jian</author>
    <author>Arne Krietsch</author>
    <author>Richard Kuracina</author>
    <author>Miroslav Mynarz</author>
    <author>Frederik Norman</author>
    <author>David Osborne</author>
    <author>Maria Prodan</author>
    <author>Nelly Sandsta</author>
    <author>Adrian Toman</author>
    <author>Trygve Skjold</author>
    <author>Jan Skrinsky</author>
    <author>Zuzana Szabova</author>
    <author>Alexis Vignes</author>
    <author>Mattheus van Wingerden</author>
    <author>Shenjung Zhong</author>
    <subject>
      <language>deu</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Explosionsschutz</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>deu</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Anlagensicherheit</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>deu</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Konstruktiver Explosionsschutz</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>deu</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Hybride Gemische</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Round robin tests</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Hybrid mixtures</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Industrial explosions</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Safety characteristics</value>
    </subject>
    <collection role="ddc" number="621">Angewandte Physik</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2 Prozess- und Anlagensicherheit</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2.1 Sicherheit von Energieträgern</collection>
    <collection role="themenfelder" number="">Energie</collection>
    <collection role="literaturgattung" number="">Verlagsliteratur</collection>
    <collection role="fulltextaccess" number="">Datei im Netzwerk der BAM verfügbar ("Closed Access")</collection>
    <collection role="themenfelder" number="">Wasserstoff</collection>
  </doc>
  <doc>
    <id>52548</id>
    <completedYear/>
    <publishedYear>2021</publishedYear>
    <thesisYearAccepted/>
    <language>eng</language>
    <pageFirst>1</pageFirst>
    <pageLast>15</pageLast>
    <pageNumber/>
    <edition/>
    <issue>July</issue>
    <volume>71</volume>
    <type>article</type>
    <publisherName>Elsevier</publisherName>
    <publisherPlace>Amsterdam</publisherPlace>
    <creatingCorporation/>
    <contributingCorporation/>
    <belongsToBibliography>1</belongsToBibliography>
    <completedDate>--</completedDate>
    <publishedDate>--</publishedDate>
    <thesisDateAccepted>--</thesisDateAccepted>
    <title language="eng">Comparative study on standardized ignition sources used for explosion testing</title>
    <abstract language="eng">For the determination of safety characteristics of gases, vapors and dusts different types of ignition sources are used in international standards and guidelines. The paper presents test results of a comparative calorimetric and visual study between four different types of ignition sources. The ignition procedures were analyzed visually with a high-speed camera and electric recordings. In addition to that, the influence of the electrode-orientation, -distance as well as ignition energy on the reproducibility of the exploding wire igniter was tested.&#13;
&#13;
The exploding wire is already in use for standardized determination of safety characteristics of gases, first tests on the suitability of the exploding wire igniter for dust testing have been carried out but are not standardized yet. Using the exploding wire, the ignition energy can be varied from 2 J to 10 000 J (2 x 5000 J) and thus it could be used for gases, vapors, dusts and hybrid mixtures. Moreover it can be used at high initial pressures and it is the only ignition source with an easily measurable ignition energy release. Furthermore, it does not introduce another chemical reaction into the system.&#13;
&#13;
Finally, a proposal for a standard ignition source for explosion tests on hybrid mixtures is derived from the test results.</abstract>
    <parentTitle language="eng">Journal of loss prevention in the process industries</parentTitle>
    <identifier type="doi">10.1016/j.jlp.2021.104516</identifier>
    <identifier type="issn">0950-4230</identifier>
    <enrichment key="opus.source">publish</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="eventName">13th International Symposium on Hazards, Prevention, and Mitigation of Industrial Explosions</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="eventPlace">Braunschweig, Germany</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="eventStart">27.07.2020</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="eventEnd">31.07.2020</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="date_peer_review">05.07.2021</enrichment>
    <author>Stefan Spitzer</author>
    <author>Enis Askar</author>
    <author>Arne Krietsch</author>
    <author>Volkmar Schröder</author>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Ignition source</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Exploding wire</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Hybrid mixtures</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Safety characteristics determination</value>
    </subject>
    <collection role="ddc" number="624">Ingenieurbau</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2 Prozess- und Anlagensicherheit</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2.1 Sicherheit von Energieträgern</collection>
    <collection role="themenfelder" number="">Infrastruktur</collection>
    <collection role="literaturgattung" number="">Verlagsliteratur</collection>
    <collection role="fulltextaccess" number="">Datei im Netzwerk der BAM verfügbar ("Closed Access")</collection>
  </doc>
  <doc>
    <id>56516</id>
    <completedYear/>
    <publishedYear>2022</publishedYear>
    <thesisYearAccepted/>
    <language>eng</language>
    <pageFirst>1</pageFirst>
    <pageLast>8</pageLast>
    <pageNumber/>
    <edition/>
    <issue/>
    <volume>81</volume>
    <type>article</type>
    <publisherName>Elsevier</publisherName>
    <publisherPlace>Amsterdam</publisherPlace>
    <creatingCorporation/>
    <contributingCorporation/>
    <belongsToBibliography>1</belongsToBibliography>
    <completedDate>--</completedDate>
    <publishedDate>--</publishedDate>
    <thesisDateAccepted>--</thesisDateAccepted>
    <title language="eng">1st international round robin test on safety characteristics of hybrid mixtures</title>
    <abstract language="eng">There is no applicable existing standard for the determination of safety characteristics for hybrid mixtures. While developing a new standard in a joint research project in Germany first results from parameter studies led to a standard procedure that can be adopted by laboratories that are already testing dusts in the so called 20L-sphere with as little additional effort as necessary. In fact, one of the main objectives of this research project was to keep modifications and adjustments from the generally accepted dust testing procedures as easy and minimal as possible so as to limit potential deviations from one laboratory to another.&#13;
In this first round robin test on hybrid mixtures ever, with methane as gas component and a specific corn starch as dust sample, the practicality of the whole procedure, the scattering of the results and the deviation between the testing apparatuses is investigated. This paper summarizes the experimental procedure adopted and objectives of the first round-robin phase involving three of the four original German companies, plus volunteering laboratories from Australia, Belgium, Czech Republic, France, Poland and P.R. China. The results will have an impact on the new standard and may lead to robust data for later simulation purposes.</abstract>
    <parentTitle language="eng">Journal of loss prevention in the process industries</parentTitle>
    <identifier type="doi">10.1016/j.jlp.2022.104947</identifier>
    <identifier type="issn">0950-4230</identifier>
    <enrichment key="opus.source">publish</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="date_peer_review">18.01.2023</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="PaperofMonth">1</enrichment>
    <author>Stefan Spitzer</author>
    <author>Enis Askar</author>
    <author>Alexander Benke</author>
    <author>C. Cloney</author>
    <author>S. D’Hyon</author>
    <author>O. Dufaud</author>
    <author>Z. Dyduch</author>
    <author>D. Gabel</author>
    <author>P. Geoerg</author>
    <author>V. Heilmann</author>
    <author>V. Jankuj</author>
    <author>W. Jian</author>
    <author>U. Krause</author>
    <author>Arne Krietsch</author>
    <author>M. Mynarz</author>
    <author>F. Norman</author>
    <author>J. Skrinsky</author>
    <author>J. Taveau</author>
    <author>A. Vignes</author>
    <author>S. Zakel</author>
    <author>S. Zhong</author>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Hybrid mixtures</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>20L-sphere</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Round robin test</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Turbulent combustion</value>
    </subject>
    <collection role="ddc" number="624">Ingenieurbau</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2 Prozess- und Anlagensicherheit</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2.1 Sicherheit von Energieträgern</collection>
    <collection role="themenfelder" number="">Infrastruktur</collection>
    <collection role="literaturgattung" number="">Verlagsliteratur</collection>
    <collection role="fulltextaccess" number="">Datei im Netzwerk der BAM verfügbar ("Closed Access")</collection>
  </doc>
  <doc>
    <id>56855</id>
    <completedYear/>
    <publishedYear>2023</publishedYear>
    <thesisYearAccepted/>
    <language>eng</language>
    <pageFirst>1200</pageFirst>
    <pageLast>1207</pageLast>
    <pageNumber/>
    <edition/>
    <issue/>
    <volume>170</volume>
    <type>article</type>
    <publisherName>Elsevier</publisherName>
    <publisherPlace>Amsterdam</publisherPlace>
    <creatingCorporation>Institution of Chemical Engineers</creatingCorporation>
    <contributingCorporation/>
    <belongsToBibliography>1</belongsToBibliography>
    <completedDate>--</completedDate>
    <publishedDate>--</publishedDate>
    <thesisDateAccepted>--</thesisDateAccepted>
    <title language="eng">Igniting volume of four ignition sources</title>
    <abstract language="eng">Several standardized ignition sources are used to determine the safety characteristics of gases, vapours and dusts. Standards indicate the source of ignition but vary in specifying other features such as the burning duration, energy or the volume in which the energy is released. Since heat is not visible under normal conditions, a schlieren technique was used to visualize the entire igniting volume and not just the flames. This article focuses on the igniting volume, compares it among the four standardized ignition sources and displays its relationship to the size of the test vessel. Differences in the ignition behaviour of the ignition sources might lead to the determination of erroneous safety characteristics and with that to the unsafe operation of processes.</abstract>
    <parentTitle language="eng">Process safety and environmental protection</parentTitle>
    <identifier type="doi">10.1016/j.psep.2022.12.076</identifier>
    <identifier type="issn">0957-5820</identifier>
    <enrichment key="opus.source">publish</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="date_peer_review">20.02.2023</enrichment>
    <author>Stefan Spitzer</author>
    <author>V. Jankuj</author>
    <author>K. Hecht</author>
    <author>Arne Krietsch</author>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Hybrid mixtures</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>20L-sphere</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Ignition sources</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Exploding wire</value>
    </subject>
    <collection role="ddc" number="624">Ingenieurbau</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2 Prozess- und Anlagensicherheit</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2.1 Sicherheit von Energieträgern</collection>
    <collection role="themenfelder" number="">Infrastruktur</collection>
    <collection role="literaturgattung" number="">Verlagsliteratur</collection>
    <collection role="fulltextaccess" number="">Datei im Netzwerk der BAM verfügbar ("Closed Access")</collection>
  </doc>
  <doc>
    <id>55461</id>
    <completedYear/>
    <publishedYear>2022</publishedYear>
    <thesisYearAccepted/>
    <language>eng</language>
    <pageFirst>1</pageFirst>
    <pageLast>10</pageLast>
    <pageNumber/>
    <edition/>
    <issue>4</issue>
    <volume>5</volume>
    <type>article</type>
    <publisherName>MDPI</publisherName>
    <publisherPlace>Basel</publisherPlace>
    <creatingCorporation/>
    <contributingCorporation/>
    <belongsToBibliography>1</belongsToBibliography>
    <completedDate>--</completedDate>
    <publishedDate>--</publishedDate>
    <thesisDateAccepted>--</thesisDateAccepted>
    <title language="eng">Requirements for a Hybrid Dust-Gas-Standard: Influence of the Mixing Procedure on Safety Characteristics of Hybrid Mixtures</title>
    <abstract language="eng">While developing a standard for the determination of safety characteristics for hybrid mixtures the authors discovered, that, beside the ignition source, the mixing procedure is the main difference between the single-phase standards for dusts and gases. The preparation of hybrid mixtures containing a flammable gas and a flammable dust in the 20 L-sphere can be realized in different ways. Either the flammable gas is filled only in the sphere or only in the dust container or in both. In previous works, almost always the first method is applied, without giving any information on the accuracy of the gas mixtures. In this work the accuracy of the gas mixtures and the results of the tests applying two methods of mixing were studied. No significant influence of the mixing method itself on the safety characteristics explosion pressure pex and the normalized rate of pressure rise (K-value) was found. Obviously, homogenization of the gas mixtures can be obtained sufficiently by the turbulence that is caused during the injection from the dust container into the explosion chamber within a short time. However, the mixing procedure has a great influence on the accuracy of the gas amount of the mixtures obtained. Without modifying the 20 L-sphere by installing precise pressure sensors, assuring its tightness and performing gas analysis, it must be expected, that the accuracy of the gas mixtures is very low. This has a significant influence on the measured safety characteristics and may lead to unsafe facilities or unnecessary expensive safety measures.</abstract>
    <parentTitle language="eng">Fire</parentTitle>
    <identifier type="doi">10.3390/fire5040113</identifier>
    <identifier type="urn">urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-554610</identifier>
    <enrichment key="opus.source">publish</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="date_peer_review">12.09.2022</enrichment>
    <licence>Creative Commons - CC BY - Namensnennung 4.0 International</licence>
    <author>Stefan Spitzer</author>
    <author>Enis Askar</author>
    <author>Kristin Hecht</author>
    <author>D. Gabel</author>
    <author>S. Zakel</author>
    <author>Arne Krietsch</author>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Hybrid mixtures</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>20 L-sphere</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Pre-ignition pressure rise</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Post-injection pressure drop</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Safety characteristics</value>
    </subject>
    <collection role="ddc" number="624">Ingenieurbau</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2 Prozess- und Anlagensicherheit</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2.1 Sicherheit von Energieträgern</collection>
    <collection role="themenfelder" number="">Infrastruktur</collection>
    <collection role="literaturgattung" number="">Verlagsliteratur</collection>
    <collection role="fulltextaccess" number="">Datei für die Öffentlichkeit verfügbar ("Open Access")</collection>
    <collection role="unnumberedseries" number="">Wissenschaftliche Artikel der BAM</collection>
    <thesisPublisher>Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM)</thesisPublisher>
    <file>https://opus4.kobv.de/opus4-bam/files/55461/Spitzer et. al. (2022) - Influence of the Mixing Procedure on Safety Characteristics.pdf</file>
  </doc>
  <doc>
    <id>53735</id>
    <completedYear/>
    <publishedYear>2021</publishedYear>
    <thesisYearAccepted/>
    <language>eng</language>
    <pageFirst>122495</pageFirst>
    <pageLast/>
    <pageNumber/>
    <edition/>
    <issue/>
    <volume>311</volume>
    <type>article</type>
    <publisherName>Elsevier Ltd.</publisherName>
    <publisherPlace>Niederlande</publisherPlace>
    <creatingCorporation/>
    <contributingCorporation/>
    <belongsToBibliography>1</belongsToBibliography>
    <completedDate>--</completedDate>
    <publishedDate>--</publishedDate>
    <thesisDateAccepted>--</thesisDateAccepted>
    <title language="eng">Influence of pre-ignition pressure rise on safety characteristics of dusts and  hybrid mixtures</title>
    <abstract language="eng">For the determination of the safety characteristics of dusts it is necessary to disperse the dust in the oxidating atmosphere (usually air). In the standard procedures for dusts this is realized by a partially evacuated explosion vessel (20L-sphere) in which the dust gets injected from a dust chamber pressurized with air. Shortly after that injection  (60  ms)  the  dust  cloud  gets  ignited  under  turbulent  conditions,  that  are  otherwise  seen  as  almost ambient  with  20  ◦C  and  about  1  bar  (abs).  While  there  has  been  a  lot  of  research  about  the  influence  of  the ignition delay time and the level of turbulence in the recent years little attention was paid to the pre–ignition pressure  rise  and  the  allowed  variations  in  the  standards.  In  the  following  work  we  showed  that  the  allowed ranges for the pressures in the different dust standards influence the safety characteristics of dust alone severely. &#13;
Even though hybrid mixtures are an emerging risk problem in an interconnected industry there is no standard for the determination of their safety characteristics. In this work it is shown that especially for the preparation of hybrid mixtures of flammable dust and gas the pressures after injection of the dust and the mixing procedure have  a  large  influence  on  the  composition  of  the  tested  mixtures  and  therefore  on  the  safety  characteristics. &#13;
Considering  both  effects,  wrong  concentration  of  gas  and  wrong  initial  pressure,  the  discrepancy  of  safety characteristics from different facilities will be too big to applicable. The methods to overcome these weaknesses are also presented.</abstract>
    <parentTitle language="eng">Fuel</parentTitle>
    <identifier type="doi">10.1016/j.fuel.2021.122495</identifier>
    <identifier type="urn">urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-537358</identifier>
    <enrichment key="opus.source">publish</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="date_peer_review">04.04.2022</enrichment>
    <licence>Creative Commons - CC BY - Namensnennung 4.0 International</licence>
    <author>Stefan Spitzer</author>
    <author>Enis Askar</author>
    <author>Alexander Benke</author>
    <author>B. Janovsky</author>
    <author>U. Krause</author>
    <author>Arne Krietsch</author>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Hybrid mixtures</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>20L-sphere</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Pre-ignition pressure rise</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Post-injection pressure drop</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Safety characteristics</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Mixing procedure</value>
    </subject>
    <collection role="ddc" number="624">Ingenieurbau</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2 Prozess- und Anlagensicherheit</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2.1 Sicherheit von Energieträgern</collection>
    <collection role="themenfelder" number="">Infrastruktur</collection>
    <collection role="literaturgattung" number="">Verlagsliteratur</collection>
    <collection role="fulltextaccess" number="">Datei für die Öffentlichkeit verfügbar ("Open Access")</collection>
    <collection role="unnumberedseries" number="">Wissenschaftliche Artikel der BAM</collection>
    <thesisPublisher>Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM)</thesisPublisher>
    <file>https://opus4.kobv.de/opus4-bam/files/53735/Spitzer et. al. 2021 - Influence of PIPR on SC of dusts and hybrid mixtures.pdf</file>
  </doc>
  <doc>
    <id>51790</id>
    <completedYear/>
    <publishedYear>2020</publishedYear>
    <thesisYearAccepted/>
    <language>eng</language>
    <pageFirst>864</pageFirst>
    <pageLast>875</pageLast>
    <pageNumber/>
    <edition/>
    <issue/>
    <volume>13</volume>
    <type>conferenceobject</type>
    <publisherName>PTB Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt Braunschweig</publisherName>
    <publisherPlace/>
    <creatingCorporation/>
    <contributingCorporation/>
    <belongsToBibliography>0</belongsToBibliography>
    <completedDate>--</completedDate>
    <publishedDate>--</publishedDate>
    <thesisDateAccepted>--</thesisDateAccepted>
    <title language="eng">Comparative study on standardized ignition sources used for explosion testing</title>
    <abstract language="eng">For the determination of safety characteristics of gases, vapors and dusts different types of ignition sources are used in international standards and guidelines. Table 1 compares technical relevant ignition sources with their main features. The paper presents test results of a comparative calorimetric and visual study between four different types of ignition sources. The ignition procedures were analyzed visually with a high-speed camera and electric recordings. In addition to that, the influence of the electrode-orientation, -distance as well as ignition energy on the reproducibility of the exploding wire igniter was tested.&#13;
The exploding wire is already in use for standardized determination of safety characteristics of gases, first tests on the suitability of the exploding wire igniter for dust testing have been carried out by Scheid et al. Using the exploding wire, the ignition energy can be varied from 2 to 10 000 J (2 x 5 000 J) and thus it could be used for gases, vapors, dusts and hybrid mixtures. Moreover it can be used at high initial pressures and it is the only ignition source with an easily measurable ignition energy release. Furthermore, it does not introduce another chemical reaction into the system.&#13;
Finally, a proposal for a standard ignition source for explosion tests on hybrid mixtures is derived from the test results.</abstract>
    <parentTitle language="eng">13th International Symposium on Hazards, Prevention and Mitigation of Industrial Explosions</parentTitle>
    <identifier type="doi">10.7795/810.20200724</identifier>
    <identifier type="url">https://oar.ptb.de/files/download/5f3e662f4c93901010006dbf</identifier>
    <identifier type="urn">urn:nbn:de:kobv:b43-517908</identifier>
    <enrichment key="eventName">13th International Symposium on Hazards, Prevention and Mitigation of Industrial Explosions</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="eventPlace">Online meeting</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="eventStart">27.07.2020</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="eventEnd">31.07.2020</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="opus.doi.autoCreate">false</enrichment>
    <enrichment key="opus.urn.autoCreate">true</enrichment>
    <licence>Creative Commons - CC BY - Namensnennung 4.0 International</licence>
    <author>Stefan Spitzer</author>
    <author>Enis Askar</author>
    <author>Arne Krietsch</author>
    <author>Volkmar Schröder</author>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Ignition source</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Exploding Wire</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Hybrid mixtures</value>
    </subject>
    <subject>
      <language>eng</language>
      <type>uncontrolled</type>
      <value>Safety characteristics determination</value>
    </subject>
    <collection role="ddc" number="624">Ingenieurbau</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2 Prozess- und Anlagensicherheit</collection>
    <collection role="institutes" number="">2.1 Sicherheit von Energieträgern</collection>
    <collection role="themenfelder" number="">Infrastruktur</collection>
    <collection role="themenfelder" number="">Fire Science</collection>
    <collection role="fulltextaccess" number="">Datei für die Öffentlichkeit verfügbar ("Open Access")</collection>
    <collection role="literaturgattung" number="">Graue Literatur</collection>
    <collection role="unnumberedseries" number="">Wissenschaftliche Artikel der BAM</collection>
    <thesisPublisher>Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM)</thesisPublisher>
    <file>https://opus4.kobv.de/opus4-bam/files/51790/Spitzer et al. - Comparative study on standardized ignition sources used for explosion testing.pdf</file>
  </doc>
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