FG Füge- und Schweißtechnik
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In the current paper, the correlation between the physical size of additively built wire arc specimens and their structure and properties is studied. For the purpose of this work, two oval shaped specimens of different lengths were manufactured under the same technological conditions. The specimens have a length of 200 mm and 400 mm and will be referred to as L200 and L400. The microstructure of the samples was studied using X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), optical microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The microhardness, yield strength (YS), and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) were determined and their correlation with the technological conditions of specimen build-up was clarified. The results of the carried out experiments indicated that the crystallographic structure of both specimens is similar. The scanning electron microscopy images show a higher concentration of irregularly shaped micro-pores formed near the edge of the αAl grains in the structure of the L400 specimen compared to the L200 one. An increase in the size of the αAl solid solution grains in the case of the L200 specimen towards its top section was noticed using optical microscopy. A slightly lower magnitude change was noticed concerning the L400 specimen. The increase in the size of the aluminum crystals was determined to be the increasing interpass temperature. Due to the much smaller thermal dissipation capacity of the smaller specimen, the interpass temperature of the same increased faster compared to the larger specimen. All of the above-mentioned factors led to a decrease in the microhardness of the specimens at higher stages of build-up. Since the specimens were deposited using similar layer deposition conditions, the resultant YS and UTS data are also highly comparable.
The mass production of metallic components requires high agility in the working process conditioned by the necessity of building details of different shapes and sizes. Changing the size of the components theoretically influences the thermal dissipation capability of the same, which could lead to a change in their structure and mechanical properties. This is particularly important when aluminum alloys are concerned. For this reason, two Al5356 single-track specimens were built using the same technological conditions of layer deposition by varying only their geometrical size. In all cases, the specimens were wire and arc additively manufactured (WAAM) using a process based on gas metal arc welding (GMAW) in the cold arc pulse mode (CAP). The structure of both specimens was studied and defects along their surfaces were detected in the form of micro-pores and micro-cracks. A high concentration of undissolved Mg particles was also detected, along with some standalone Si particles. Uniformity in the build-up process was achieved, which led to the formation of nearly identical structures in the specimens. Subsequently, the resultant mechanical properties were also highly comparable. This indicates that the geometry-related variation in thermal conditions has an insignificant influence on the component’s structure and properties.
Im vorgestellten Projekt wurden werkstoff- und konstuktionsgerechte Knotenformen aus Aluminiumschaumsandwich (engl. Aluminium Foam Sandwich, AFS) gestaltet und mit unterschiedlichen Schweißverfahren wie dem Metall-Inertgasschweißen und dem Rührreibschweißen gefügt und geprüft. Im Rahmen der Arbeiten stand dabei die schweißtechnische Verarbeitung von AFS mit anderen Produkten, wie den Strangpressprofilen oder dem Aluminiumvollmaterial, und deren Beanspruchbarkeit im Vordergrund. In umfangreichen Untersuchungen wurden hierzu sowohl die Verbindugsknoten selbst als auch der Sandwichverbund und die Einzelkomponenten des Sandwich, Schaum und Decklagen, anhand der statischen Festigkeit und Schwingfestigkeit bewertet. Zusätzlich wurden innere Schädigungsmechanismen betrachtet. Mit experimentellen und numerischen Nachweismethoden konnte die anwendungssichere Knotengestaltung, -anbindung und -berechnung der unterschiedlichen Verbindungstypen umgesetzt werden. Die Ergebnisse wurden im Rahmen der Nachweisführung gegenübergestellt und hinsichtlich eines praxisgerechten Einsatzes nach FKM-Richtlinie bzw. Eurocode9 bewertet. Mit den ermittelten Ergebnissen wurde die bisherige Gestaltungs- und Fügerichtlinie um neue Verbindungstypen erweitert.
Das Widerstandspunktschweißen ist ein weit verbreitetes Schweißverfahren, insbesondere bei der Karosserieherstellung in der Automobilbranche. Im Hinblick auf den Leichtbau werden zunehmend Aluminiumlegierungen verwendet. Das Hauptproblem beim Widerstandspunktschweißen von Aluminiumlegierungen ist der schnelle Elektrodenverschleiß. Dadurch wird die Qualität und Effizienz des Schweißprozesses beeinträchtigt. Die Elektrodenstandmenge ist erreicht, wenn die Schweißverbindung eines der Qualitätskriterien nicht erfüllt. Um die Elektrodenstandmenge zu ermitteln, werden in der Industrie im Rahmen der Schweißnahtqualifizierung zeit- und ressourcenaufwändige Methoden, u. a. zerstörende Prüfmethoden, verwendet. In dieser Arbeit wird eine Methode zur Vorhersage des kritischen Elektrodenverschleißes beim Aluminiumschweißen durch Messung des dynamischen Widerstandes vorgeschlagen. In umfangreichen Versuchsreihen an einer automobiltypischen Al-Legierung der 5000er Gruppe wurden dynamische Widerstandsmessungen durchgeführt. Aus den Widerstandsmesswerten konnte ein Indikator ermittelt werden, welcher auf das Auftreten von Poren in Schweißverbindung und auf einen bald auftretenden kritischen Elektrodenverschleiß hinweist.
In this publication, cold gas spraying (CGS) is investigated as an enabler for aluminum-steel joints. Using a powder-based coating process to adhere a steel layer to an aluminum substrate allows a steel component to be welded to the deposited layer by resistance spot welding. This method permits the metallurgical connection between similar materials to be separated, while mechanical bonding ensures the connection at the dissimilar aluminum-to-inlayer interface. A modification of the porous CGS layer, as well as the creation of the remelted zone in the aluminum, can be observed during the resistance spot welding process. Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) analyses show that the severely prestressed particles in the CGS coating recrystallize, which coincides with a decrease in defect density and hardness in the heat-affected zone. Microscopy of the aluminum substrate shows the creation of metallurgical pores as well as the expansion of pores attributed to the casting process. The rise in remelted aluminum hardness and decrease in the heat-affected zone of the CGS layer indicate the formation of a metallurgical notch.
Investigations on the thermal conditions during laser beam welding of high-strength steel 100Cr6
(2023)
This study examines the thermal conditions during laser beam welding of 100Cr6 high-strength steel using a TruDisk5000 disc laser with a continuous adjustable power range of 100–5000 W. Two parameter sets, characterized by laser power and welding speeds, were analyzed by thermal-metallurgical FE simulations to determine their impact on the thermal conditions during welding. The results show a significant shift in heat coupling, with conduction transitioning to deep penetration welding. As a result of the high welding speeds and reduced energy input, extremely high heating rates up to 2∙104 K s−1 (set A) respectively 4∙105 K s−1 (set B) occur. Both welds thus concern a range of temperature state values for which conventional Time-Temperature-Austenitization (TTA) diagrams are currently not defined, requiring calibration of the material models through general assumptions. Also, the change in energy input and welding speed causes significantly steep temperature gradients with a slope of approximately 5∙103 K mm−1 and strong drops in the temperature rates, particularly in the heat affected zone. The temperature cycles also show very different cooling rates for the respective parameter sets, although in both cases they are well below a cooling time t8/5 of 1 s, so that the phase transformation always leads to the formation of martensite. Since the investigated parameters are known to cause a loss of technological strength and conditionally result in cold cracks, these results will be used for further detailed experimental and numerical investigation of microstructure, hydrogen distribution, and stress-strain development at different restraint conditions.
Modern material-compatible joining methods for fiber-reinforced plastics require the heating of the materials. In order to predict the respective complex temperature fields and curves, the Fraunhofer IAP and the BTU
Cottbus-Senftenberg have developed numerical methods, which are able to simulate different radiation sources and process sequences as well.
Dieser Beitrag stellt eine Entwicklung, Anpassung und Untersuchung der neuartigen Pinschweißtechnik zur Verbindung thermoplastischer Faserkunststoffverbunde mit metallischen Fügepartnern dar. Die untersuchte Fügetechnik bietet, im Vergleich zu anderen Verfahren, neben einer einseitigen Zugänglichkeit, ein hohes Leichtbaupotenzial. An Multimaterial-Einzelpinverbindungen wurden die CMT-Pinschweißbarkeit charakterisiert und unterschiedliche Fügestrategien erprobt und ausgewertet. Als Bewertungskriterien wurden das Schweißgut sowie der Faser- und Matrixerhalt in Abhängigkeit von den Schweißparametern untersucht. Die mechanische Beanspruchbarkeit der mit dem entwickelten Verfahren erstellten Verbindungen wurde in Scherzugversuchen ermittelt. An Mehrpinverbindungen wurde anschließend der Einfluss der Pinanordnung untersucht und die Auslegung der Fügezone analysiert. Der Fügeprozess wurde an Funktionsmustern und diese wiederum in 3-Punkt-Biegeversuchen validiert sowie mit dem Kleben verglichen.
Neuartige, werkstoffgerechte Fügeverfahren für Faserkunststoffverbunde setzen die Erwärmung der Materialien voraus. Um die damit verbundenen komplexen Temperaturfelder und -verläufe vorherzusagen, haben das Fraunhofer IAP und die BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg numerische Verfahren entwickelt. Mit diesen können auch verschiedene Strahlungsquellen und Prozessabläufe simuliert werden.
For the purpose of this research, single track details were manufactured in the shape of thin walls with a length of 100 mm and a height of 80 mm. Two welding speeds were chosen for this experiment–13.3 mm/s and 20.0 mm/s corresponding to the following heat inputs: 120 J/mm and 80 J/mm. The gas metal arc welding (GMAW) method was used for the build-up of the specimens in the cold arc pulse mode. The structure of the specimens was studied using X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis carried out with CuKα radiation with a wavelength of 1.5406 Ǻ, optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). Furthermore, the Vickers hardness of the samples was determined using a ZwickRoell DuraScan 10/20 G5 unit at a force of 1 N. A preferred crystallographic orientation towards the (200) plane was observed in all cases, however a vastly textured structure was observed with inclusions of peaks in the (111), (220), and (311) crystallographic planes. The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of samples taken from different stages of build-up was calculated indicating an increase of the dislocation density at the more advanced stages of specimen growth. Despite that an increase of the hardness was observed towards the top of both specimens. This is attributed to the change in the structure of the αAl + Si formations from an irregular one at the bottom of the specimens, towards a fibrous one at the top. The results are discussed in regard to the optimization of the build-up process during wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM).
Das pulverbasierte 3D-Metalldrucken ermöglicht die Fertigung von hochkomplexen Integralbauteilen, die als Trägerstruktur für Mikroreaktoren benutzt werden. Nach einer Beschichtung der Struktur mit einem Katalysatormaterial, können diese Mikroreaktoren höchst effizient für die CO2-Methanisierung eingesetzt werden. Durch die additive Fertigung mit dem selektiven Laserstrahlschmelzen (SLM) wurden adaptierte dreidimensionale periodische Gitterstrukturen mit sehr geringen Wandstärken hergestellt. Diese weisen ein sehr günstiges Verhältnis von Oberfläche zu Volumen (TPMS - Triply periodic minimal surface) auf. Des Weiteren zeigen die TPMS-Strukturen vorteilhafte Strömungseigenschaften, die sowohl für die Beschichtung mit dem Katalysator-Material als auch die Durchströmung mit den Reaktionsmedien im Betrieb essentiell sind. So ist es beispielsweise möglich, durch die Variation der Dimension einer TPMS-Struktur die Oberfläche pro Volumeneinheit, den hydraulischen Durchmesser des Reaktors und somit auch den Transportprozess des Fluids deutlich zu verbessern. Diese Faktoren ermöglichen eine effektivere Gas-Katalysator-Reaktion. Im Vergleich zu Mikroreaktorstrukturen aus den traditionellen Herstellungsverfahren liefern die additiv gefertigten Strukturen sowohl eine höhere CO2-Umwandlungsrate als auch eine CH4-Selektivität innerhalb des diffusionskontrollierten Bereichs.
Im vorgestellten Projekt wurden werkstoff- und konstruktionsgerechte Knotenformen aus Aluminiumschaumsandwich gestaltet und mit unterschiedlichen Schweißverfahren, wie dem Metall-Inertgas-Schweißen und dem Rührreibschweißen, gefügt und geprüft. In umfangreichen Untersuchungen wurden die Knoten, der Sandwichverbund und die Einzelkomponenten des Sandwich, Schaum und Decklagen, anhand der statischen Festigkeit und Schwingfestigkeit bewertet. Zusätzlich wurden innere Schädigungsmechanismen betrachtet. Mit experimentellen und numerischen Nachweismethoden konnte die anwendungssichere Knotengestaltung, -anbindung und -berechnung der unterschiedlichen Verbindungstypen umgesetzt werden. Die Ergebnisse wurden im Rahmen der Nachweisführung gegenübergestellt und hinsichtlich eines praxisgerechten Einsatzes nach FKM-Richtlinie bzw. Eurocode9 bewertet. Mit den ermittelten Ergebnissen wurde die bisherige Gestaltungs- und Fügerichtlinie um neue Verbindungstypen erweitert.
Microhardness variations across the friction stir welded (FSW) and impulse friction stir welded (IFSW) AA2024–T351 joints have been elucidated by the transformations of the S–Al2CuMg phase with a special focus on a distinguished hardness peak within the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the impulse welds. The increase in hardness within the stir zone (SZ) originated from the partial re-precipitation of the initial Guinier-Preston-Bagaryatsky zones (GPB) and metastable S needles, previously dissolved.) Formation and growth of stable S precipitates via coalescence accounted for the softening through the thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ). The peak strengthening within the HAZ of the IFSW joints was mainly caused by the dense needle-shaped S particles, which can be explained by a mutual influence of the process specific temperature and strain cycles. Dislocations and subgrain boundaries introduced to the material due to plastic deformation facilitated the nucleation of strengthening S precipitates in the HAZ. It demonstrates that the impact of deformation should be considered by the characterization of the precipitation development in the HAZ.
The effect of heat treatment at various temperatures (650, 850, 1050, and 1100°C) and dwell times (10 min and 1 h) on the metallurgical and microstructural evolution as well as on the related tensile properties of stainless steel 316L processed by selective laser melting (SLM) has been systematically evaluated. The metallurgical and microstructural features such as defects, stability of the columnar–cellular structure and substructure, second phase particles, and phase transformation imparted by SLM and heat treatment have been discussed. It has been shown that the processing conditions specific to SLM significantly alter the kinetics of phase evolution compared to standard welding techniques which affects the accuracy of the prediction. The influence of these characteristics on tensile properties and hardness was elucidated. It was disclosed that with increasing heat treatment temperature there was a gradual increase in elongation but a decrease in strength related to the dislocation density and the development of the microstructure.
Durch den strukturellen Einsatz von Faser-Kunststoff-Verbunden (FKV) lassen sich hochwertige gewichtsoptimierte Karosserien in Mischbauweise umsetzen. Die untersuchte CMT-Pin-Schweißtechnik zur Verbindung von thermoplastischen Organoblechen mit Stählen bietet, im Vergleich zu anderen Verfahren, neben einer einseitigen Zugänglichkeit, ein hohes Leichtbaupotenzial. Das Vorhaben wurde auf eine werkstoff-, prozess- und konstruktionsgerechte Umsetzung des Verfahrens ausgerichtet.
Auf Basis experimenteller und numerischer Untersuchungen wurde eine Methode zum Vorwärmen von Organoblechen mittels Infrarotstrahlung entwickelt. Die Eignung der CMT-Pin-Technologie wurde sowohl für das Fügen von karbon- als auch glasfaserverstärktem PA6 betrachtet. Als Bewertungskriterien wurden das Schweißgut sowie der Faser- und Matrixerhalt in Abhängigkeit der Schweißparameter untersucht. Das entwickelte Verfahren wurde mit herkömmlichen Fügemethoden bzgl. der in Kopf- und Scherzugversuchen ermittelten Festigkeiten verglichen. Zur Bestimmung der Beständigkeit der Verbindungen gegen unterschiedliche Witterungsbedingungen wurden Salzsprühnebel- und Wechselkorrosionstests durchgeführt. Mit dem Fügen von Hutprofilen wurde die Anwendung der entwickelte CMT-Pin-Technik am Tunnel sowie den Längs- und Querträgern der Bodenstruktur eines Kraftfahrzeugs demonstriert.
The beam inclination leads to a change in the laser spot size on the material surface. The higher the inclination, the larger the irradiated area and the lower the laser intensity. Moreover, if the material surface is outside of the beam focal plane, the intensity distribution profile becomes asymmetric. In this study, a heat source model, which calculates the intensity distribution on the workpiece surface as a function of beam parameters (beam waist, divergence half-angle) and process parameters (laser power, incidence angle, and distance to focal plane) was developed. The applicability of the heat source model was demonstrated by simulating 4 different laser hardening regimes. Once the heat efficiency coefficient had been calibrated the developed finite-element model allowed computation of temperatures while hardening with perpendicular laser beams as well as with inclined beams. The open-source software FEniCSx was used for the finite element computations. The mathematical formulation, required for performing temperature simulations with FEniCSx was briefly introduced.
Due to the recent developments of hardware components and the hereby resulting ability to increase process parameters, the application area of the cold gas spray technology is expanding quickly. The present
research focuses on the influence of working gas pressure and working gas temperature on the adhesive strength of inner diameter coatings, which were produced with two different alloy steel powder variants. Gas pressure and gas temperature were varied in four different parameter sets. At first, the powder variants were examined for morphology and particle size distribution. Secondly, the influence of
four different process parameters on the achievable particle velocity was measured. In addition, the arithmetical mean height (Sa) of the coating was measured in order to determine the effect of the four parameter sets on the achievable surface roughness. Furthermore, the impact of the process parameters on the steel particles’ penetration
depth into the aluminum substrate was examined. Finally, adhesion strength measurements of the inner diameter coatings were carried out. The results reveal that with rising process parameters, the particle velocity increases, and the achievable surface roughness is lowered. It was also shown that the penetration depth of the particles into
the substrate increases with increasing particle velocity. In addition, this study demonstrated a dependence of the process parameters on the adhesion strength for inner diameter coatings.
Among different joining methods, the electron beam welding is recently applied for manufacturing of turbine components from temperature-resistant nickel-based conventionally cast Alloy 247 LC CC. However, the high tendency to hot cracking, in particular the formation of solidification cracks, remains a major challenge. Experiments indicate a significant reduction in hot cracks if the welding is performed outside the common welding parameter range. To understand these observations, a study of local thermo-mechanical conditions during electron beam welding of Alloy 247 samples was carried out using numerical simulations. The results were subsequently compared with reference test welds. For this purpose, a finite element model for coupled transient thermal and mechanical analysis was created and used. The work presents a comparative analysis of the evolution of strain components in brittle temperature range during cooling, considering the distribution and orientation of the cracks. Various relations between local strain kinetics and crack appearance, with notable influence of the plastic strain vector, were observed. Finally, the aspects of assessment of hot crack susceptibility with aid of thermo-mechanical welding simulation are discussed.
Due to recent developments, cold gas spraying technology can now be used to create inner diameter coatings for cylinder inner diameters > 70 mm. The present investigations focus on the process optimization and the specific properties of cold gas spray inner diameter coatings created with three different alloy steel powder variants. The cold gas spray coating properties were compared with the corresponding properties of coatings created with twin wire arc technology. The particle velocities and deposition efficiencies were measured with the aim of optimizing the process parameters. The most suitable process parameters were used to analyze the microstructure of the deposited coating in terms of porosity and interface quality. Furthermore, the hardness and adhesion strength properties of the coatings were measured. In addition, the different liners were honed, and the achievable surface roughness of each was determined. Finally, wear resistance was evaluated using ball-on-disk testing. The results reveal that with the maximum process parameters, the cold gas spray coating properties are comparable to the twin wire arc coating properties. Further investigations are necessary to determine whether cold gas spraying is a feasible alternative to the current series production process for cylinder surface coatings.
This work investigates heat transfer mechanism of aluminum resistance spot welding process. The main target is to determine thermal contact conductance and heat transfer coefficients for natural convection and thermal radiation at ambient air and forced convection inside the water-cooled electrodes. For this purpose, the heat transfer of hot sheets in a welding gun for aluminum alloys AA5182 and AA6014 is analyzed experimentally and numerically. The transient temperature field is measured by several thermocouples in a simplified experimental setup. Subsequent thermal-mechanical coupled finite
element simulations of the experiments were used to calibrate the heat transfer coefficients. The heat transfer coefficient for natural convection and thermal radiation to ambient air is 13 W m2 K and the heat transfer coefficient for forced convection of electrode water-cooling is 25,000 W m2 K. The results indicate that the thermal contact conductance can be assumed ideal for welding process. Additionally, the finite element model is validated by the measured and calculated dissipated heat due to forced convection. Finally, a sensitivity analysis is performed to compare the influence of maximum and minimum heat transfer coefficients of forced convection (water-cooling) on transient temperature field and dissipated heat of sample
AA5182.