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Trees from drought deciduous forests (“bosque seco”) in northern Peru and southern Ecuador regularly shed their leaves at the onset of seven months-long periods without rain. This way they very effectively reduce the bulk water consumption by leaf transpiration, still loosing small amounts of water through their bark, but at the risk of too little or no carbon gain when leaf-less. Seven species studied here have good developed green cortex tissue on stems and axes, as especially evident for the “bottle tree” Ceiba trischistandra (A. Gray) Bakhuisen (Bombacaceae). In several leaf-less tree species at the end of summer drought, when xylem sap flows are very low, indications of higher xylem flows at night as compared to day-time were found, which led to the question of whether the trees are capable of performing CAM in their axes. However, although quite low in some cases, the pH of the cortex tissues did not fluctuate diurnally. In addition, no night-time carbon uptake could be observed. Although no net carbon gain was measured in C. trischistandra and Erythrina smithiana Krukoff (Fabaceae) photosynthetic activity of the green cortex was sufficient to re-assimilate between 50% to 60% of the carbon released by mitochondrial respiration. In contrast, the obligate CAM plant Cereus diffusus (Britton & Rose) Werdermann (Cactaceae), which was studied as a reference in the same environment, showed both diurnal pH-fluctuations in its green tissue with lowest values before sun rise, and net carbon fixation at night.
Following surface disturbance, quaternary sands are the basic substrate for soil development in the Lusatian reclamation area. These substrates mostly contain few organic matter and, hence, are nutrient poor. Accumulation of soil carbon is an important factor for ecosystem development, where biological soil crusts initially influence soil processes and promote ecosystem succession. The compositional structures of biological soil crusts at various developmental stages and their photosynthetic properties were investigated on two former open-cast lignite sites, currently under reclamation, an artificial sand dune in Welzow Süd, and a forest plantation in Schlabendorf Süd (Brandenburg, Germany). As development of biological soil crusts progressed, their contents of organic carbon and total chlorophyll increased. The ratio of these parameters, however, varied with the relative contribution of lichens and mosses in particular. Also maximum photochemical efficiency, net photosynthesis and respiration increased with crustal development. An additional evaluation of NDVI and chlorophyll fluorescence images showed that especially moss-dominated biocrusts had higher photosynthetic capacity compared to green algae-dominated biocrusts or soil lichens, so the photosynthetic capacity showed to be highly species-specific. The ratio of gross photosynthesis to respiration indicated a higher ecological efficiency of biocrusts dominated by green algae than of lichen-dominated biocrusts. The occurrence of soil lichens reduced net CO2 fixation and increased CO2 release due to the enhanced mycobiontic respiration. During crustal succession, the rise of photosynthesis-related parameters is not necessarily linear as a result of the highly heterogenic distribution of the different crustal organisms between biocrusts of similar developmental stages as well as between those growing at the two study sites. Therefore, the evaluation of relevant ecophysiological parameters highlighted that not all biocrust-forming organisms similarly contribute to the ecophysiological behavior of biological soil crusts. Nevertheless, the occurrence of the biological soil crusts promoted soil formation and accumulation of soil carbon in initial soils.
Investigations were done on two former open-cast lignite mining sites under reclamation, an artificial sand dune in Welzow Süd, and a forest plantation in Schlabendorf Süd (Brandenburg, Germany). The aim was to associate the topsoil hydrological characteristics of green algae dominated as well as moss and soil lichen dominated biological soil crusts during crustal succession with their water retention and the repellency index on sandy soils under temperate cli-mate and different reliefs.
The investigation of the repellency index showed on the one hand an increase due to the cross-linking of sand parti-cles by green algae which resulted in clogging of pores. On the other hand, the occurrence of moss plants led to a de-crease of the repellency index due to absorption caused by bryophytes. The determination of the water retention curves showed an increase of the water holding capacity, especially in conjunction with the growth of green algae layer. The pore-related van Genuchten parameter indicate a clay-like behaviour of the developed soil crusts. Because of the inho-mogeneous distribution of lichens and mosses as well as the varying thickness of green algae layers, the water retention differed between the study sites and between samples of similar developmental stages. However, similar tendencies of water retention and water repellency related to the soil crust formation were observed.
Biological soil crusts should be considered after disturbances in the context of reclamation measures, because the ini-tial development of green algae biocrusts lead to an increasing repellency index, while the occurrence of mosses and a gain in organic matter enhance the water holding capacity. Thus, the succession of biocrusts and their small-scale succes-sion promote the development of soil and ecosystem.
Salt tolerance of agricultural crops has been studied since the 1940, but knowledge regarding salt tolerance of woody crops is still in its initial phase. Salt tolerance of agricultural crops has been expressed as the yield decrease due to a certain salt concentration within the root zone as compared to a non-saline control. The most well-known plant response curve to salinity has been a piece-wise linear regression relating crop yield to root zone salinity. This method used the hypothesis that crops tolerate salt up to a threshold after which their yield decreases approximately linearly. Critique to this method included its lack of sensitivity to dynamic factors such as weather conditions. As a result, other classification indices have been developed, but none is as well accepted as the threshold-slope model. In addition to a mini-review of the key salt tolerance studies, our objective was to classify salt tolerance levels of poplars and willows. Initial classification showed that salt tolerance of these genera ranged from sensitive to moderately tolerant.
Forest floor mineral soil mix (FMM) and peat mineral soil mix (PMM) are cover soils commonly used for upland reclamation post open-pit oil sands mining in northern Alberta, Canada. Coarse woody debris (CWD) can be used to regulate soil temperature and water content, to increase organic matter content, and to create microsites for the establishment of microorganisms and vegetation in upland reclamation. We studied the effects of CWD on soil microbial community level physiological profile (CLPP) and soil enzyme activities in FMM and PMM in a reclaimed landscape in the oil sands. This experiment was conducted with a 2 (FMM vs PMM) × 2 (near CWD vs away from CWD) factorial design with 6 replications. The study plots were established with Populus tremuloides (trembling aspen) CWD placed on each plot between November 2007 and February 2008. Soil samples were collected within 5 cm from CWD and more than 100 cm away from CWD in July, August and September 2013 and 2014. Microbial biomass was greater (p<0.05) in FMM than in PMM, in July, and August 2013 and July 2014, and greater (p<0.05) near CWD than away from CWD in FMM in July and August samplings. Soil microbial CLPP differed between FMM
and PMM (p<0.01) according to a principal component analysis and CWD changed microbial CLPP in FMM (p<0.05) but not in PMM. Coarse woody debris increased microbial community functional diversity (average well color development in Biolog Ecoplates) in both cover soils (p<0.05) in August and September 2014. Carbon degrading soil enzyme activities were greater in FMM than in PMM (p<0.05) regardless of distance from CWD but were not affected by CWD. Greater microbial biomass and enzyme activities in FMM than in PMM will increase organic matter decomposition and nutrient cycling, improving plant growth. Enhanced microbial community functional diversity by CWD application in upland reclamation has implications for accelerating upland reclamation after oil sands mining.
Halophytes develop various morphological and physiological traits that enable them to grow successfully on saline substrates. Parasitic plants on halophytic hosts may also encounter salt stress. We investigated the mistletoe Plicosepalus acaciae (syn: Loranthus acacia; Loranthaceae), which occurs on 5 halophytic and at least 10 non-halophytic hosts in the Southern Arava Valley (Israel). Plicosepalus acaciae is a common parasite north of Eilat to the Dead Sea area and in the Jordan Valley. Morphological and physiological responses of P. acaciae to salinity were investigated by comparison of plants on halophytic with those on non-halophytic hosts. Ion patterns of different host–parasite associations were determined as was the development of leaf succulence at different growth stages. The leaf water content of P. acaciae increased and leaves developed succulence when growing on halophytic hosts, especially on Tamarix species, where leaf water content was three times higher than that on non-halophytic hosts and the leaf volume increased four to five times. The reason for increased succulence was a higher ion concentration of, and osmotic adjustment with, Na+ and Cl2. Plicosepalus acaciae showed a high morphological and ecophysiological plasticity, enabling it to cope with salt stress, and can be classified as a facultative eu-halophyte, which increases its halo-succulence according to the host. Host–parasite associations are a model systemfor the investigation of halophytes under different salt stress conditions.
The pioneer tree black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) is a drought-resistant tree and, in symbiosis with Rhizobium, able to fix dinitrogen from the atmosphere. It is, therefore, an interesting species for marginal lands where soil amelioration is sought in addition to economic gain. However, the interaction between soil water availability, carbon allocation and nitrogen fixation is important for a successful establishment of trees on marginal lands and has not yet been investigated for black locust. Twoyear-old trees were grown under various soil water conditions and drought cycles. The stable isotopic composition of C (δ 13C) and N (δ 15N) of the leaves was used to identify i) the effective drought condition of the treatments and ii) the portion N accrued from the atmosphere by the biological nitrogen fixation. Drought-stressed plants significantly reduced their total aboveground biomass production, which was linearly linked to tree transpiration. The shoot:root ratio values changed from 2.2 for the drought-stressed to 4.3 for the well-watered plants. Our investigation shows that drought stress increases the nodule biomass of black locust in order to maintain biological nitrogen fixation and to counteract the lower soil nitrogen availability. The biological nitrogen fixation of drought-stressed trees could be maintained at relatively higher values compared to the well-watered trees. The average leaf nitrogen content varied between 2.8% and 3.0% and was not influenced by the drought stress. Carbon fixation, carbon allocation, and biological nitrogen fixation are to some extent balanced at low irrigation and allow Robinia to cope with long-term water constraints. The combination of black locust’s ecophysiological and morphological plasticity make it interesting as a biomass source for bioenergy and timber production, even in nutrient-limited and drought-affected areas of Europe.
Stimulated by the rising demand for bioenergy, forestry practices for energy production are of increasing importance worldwide. Black locust (Robinia
pseudoacacia L.) is a suitable tree species for biomass production in shortrotation plantations in East Germany, especially on marginal land where insufficient water and nutrients are a limiting factor for tree growth. Our study aims to clarify the spatial and temporal variability of the black locust growth through the analysis of the plant water status, and to evaluate the effect of adverse edaphic conditions on growth performances, amplified by periods of summer drought. The study was carried out at two sites presenting comparable climatic but different edaphic conditions: (i) fertile agricultural soil; and (ii) heterogeneous unstructured soil from a reclaimed post-mining area. During the vegetation period, the growth rate decreased in both sites following the plant water status in terms of pre-dawn leaf water potential. Particularly in the post-mining area, due to the adverse edaphic conditions, below the critical pre-dawn water potential value of -0.5 MPa, the stem growth was drastically reduced during a period of summer drought. However, the trees could cope with the extreme soil and weather conditions in the post-mining site without perishing.
Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) is a drought-tolerant fast growing tree, which could be an alternative to the more common tree species used in short-rotation coppice on marginal land. The plasticity of black locust in the form of ecophysiological and morphological adaptations to drought is an important precondition for its successful growth in such areas. However, adaptation to drought stress is detrimental to primary production. Furthermore, the soil water availability condition of the initial stage of development may have an impact on the tree resilience. We aimed to investigate the effect of drought stress applied during the resprouting on the drought tolerance of the plant, by examining the black locust growth patterns. We exposed young trees in lysimeters to different cycles of drought. The drought memory affected the plant growth performance and its drought tolerance: the plants resprouting under drought conditions were more drought tolerant than the well-watered ones. Black locust tolerates drastic soil water availability variations without altering its water use efficiency (2.57 g L−1), evaluated under drought stress. Due to its constant water use efficiency and the high phenotypic plasticity, black locust could become an important species to be cultivated on marginal land.
Soil water availability, nutrient supply and climatic conditions are key factors for plant production. For a sustainable integration of bioenergy plants into agricultural systems, detailed studies on their water uses and growth performances are needed. The new bioenergy plant Igniscum Candy is a cultivar of the Sakhalin Knotweed (Fallopia sachalinensis), which is characterized by a high annual biomass production. For the determination of transpiration-yield relations at the whole plant level we used wicked lysimeters at multiple irrigation levels associated with the soil water availability (25, 35, 70, 100%) and nitrogen fertilization (0, 50, 100, 150 kg N ha–1). Leaf transpiration and net photosynthesis were determined with a portable minicuvette system. The maximum mean transpiration rate was 10.6 mmol m–2 s–1 for well-watered plants, while the mean net photosynthesis was 9.1 μmol m–2 s–1. The cumulative transpiration of the plants during the growing seasons varied between 49 l (drought stressed) and 141 l (well-watered) per plant. The calculated transpiration coefficient for Fallopia over all of the treatments applied was 485.6 l kg–1. The transpiration-yield relation of Igniscum is comparable to rye and barley. Its growth performance making Fallopia a potentially good second generation bioenergy crop.
Formation of soil lichen crusts at reclaimed post-mining sites, Lower Lusatia, North-east Germany
(2015)
Biological soil crusts were investigated at reclaimed post-mining sites near Welzow and Schlabendorf in
Lower Lusatia (Brandenburg, Germany). Various development stages from initial biological soil crusts built up by green algae, to more developed soil crusts with mosses, as well as moss-soil lichen crusts, were classified. The spatial-temporal dynamics during the development resulted in a moss-lichens cover with discrete patches of pioneer organisms like green algae in between. At the study sites, 13 species of terricolous lichens were identified. The formation of the biological soil crust is important for the accumulation of soil organic matter in the first millimeters of the topsoil of these pioneer ecosystems. A correlation between cryptogamic biomass and soil carbon content were found.
The aim of the study was to determine the effects of nitrogen and phosphate fertilization on the growth performance of the novel bioenergy crop Fallopia sachalinensis cv. ‘Igniscum Candy’ (Polygonaceae). In a controlled pot experiment various nitrogen (0, 50, 150, 300 kg N ha-1) and phosphate (20, 40, 80 kg P ha-1) fertilizer amounts were applied to measure the effect on the biomass, plant height, leaf area, and leaf nutrient (N and P) content. Furthermore, the ecophysiological processes of chlorophyll content, chlorophyll fluorescence, and gas exchange were measured. The application of nitrogen correlated positively with biomass production, while phosphate fertilization did not show a significant effect on plant growth or ecophysiological parameters. The leaf nitrogen contents were significantly correlated with the nitrogen applications, while the leaf phosphate contents did not show a correlation with the P fertilizations, but increased with the leaf nitrogen contents. A significant linear correlation between N-Tester chlorophyll meter values and chlorophyll contents as well as with leaf nitrogen contents could be determined. Under the influence of the nitrogen fertilization, net photosynthesis increased from 3.7 to 6.6 μmol m-2 s-1. The results of this experiment demonstrated that nitrogen fertilization has an overall positive correlation with leaf nitrogen content, photosynthesis, and growth of the bioenergy crop Fallopia sachalinensis var. Igniscum Candy.
Blattstreumengen in Gehölzstreifen und angrenzenden Ackerbreichen innerhalb eines Agroforstsystems
(2015)
Theory on plant succession predicts a temporal increase in the complexity of spatial community structure and of competitive interactions: initially random occurrences of early colonising species shift towards spatially and competitively structured plant associations in later successional stages. Here we use long-term data on early plant succession in a German post mining area to disentangle the importance of random colonisation, habitat filtering, and competition on the temporal and spatial development of plant community structure. We used species co-occurrence analysis and a recently developed method for assessing competitive strength and hierarchies (transitive versus intransitive competitive orders) in multispecies communities. We found that species turnover decreased through time within interaction neighbourhoods, but increased through time outside interaction neighbourhoods. Successional change did not lead to modular community structure. After accounting for species richness effects, the strength of competitive interactions and the proportion of transitive competitive hierarchies increased through time. Although effects of habitat filtering were weak, random colonization and subsequent competitive interactions had strong effects on community structure. Because competitive strength and transitivity were poorly correlated with soil characteristics, there was little evidence for context dependent competitive strength associated with intransitive competitive hierarchies.
Due to its ability to grow on marginal sites black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) has been widely planted as a short rotation coppice (SRC) system that produce a renewable biomass feedstock in several post-mining areas of East Germany. However, as most of these sites are still in an initial stage of reclamation with low humus and nutrient contents, phosphorous can play a significant role as a plant limiting factor, because legumes require more P than other plants for their development. In April 2011, two experiments were conducted to evaluate the influence of higher rates and different applications of phosphorus fertiliser on the nutrition, survival, and biomass production of two different-aged black locust SRC plantations on the post lignite-mining site “Welzow-Süd”, situated in NE Germany. Treatments were applied as triple superphosphate (30, 60 and 120 kg P ha-1) and PK fertiliser (60 kg P ha-1) through broadcasting or banding on recently harvested or planted trees, respectively. Soil, leaf and woody biomass data were analysed utilising the Mann-Whitney U test and the Spearman correlation coefficient (rS). Following two growing seasons, it was observed that the total dry weight yields of the black locust seedlings were increased strongly by up to 8 times when compared to the control group, particularly when TSP was applied through banding. P fertilisation, however, did not affect the biomass yield of six-year-old black locust trees, but P concentration in leaves among treatments of both sites was still significantly increased and sufficient from a quantity upwards of 60 kg P ha-1. Taken together, a comparably moderate amount of P fertiliser (60 kg ha-1) had a strong impact on P uptake and growth performance in the examined black locust seedlings, which reveals a high potential to improve the current fertilisation practices for SRC black locust plantations grown on our research site.