@inproceedings{RaabRaabTaklaetal., author = {Raab, Thomas and Raab, Alexandra and Takla, Melanie and Nicolay, Alexander and Hirsch, Florian and Schneider, Anna and R{\"o}sler, Horst}, title = {Integrative Application of Traditional and Cutting-Edge Techniques to Reconstruct Holocene Earth Surface Processes and Landscape Dynamics - A Case Study from the Northern German Lowland}, series = {AGU Joint Assembly, Montreal, 2015, abstracts listing}, booktitle = {AGU Joint Assembly, Montreal, 2015, abstracts listing}, pages = {135 -- 136}, abstract = {This study outlines the opportunities to reconstruct Holocene landscape dynamics in active opencast lignite mines in southern Brandenburg (Germany). Studies on extensive outcrops that address geomorphology, pedology and archaeology provide unique insights into human-induced environmental changes. Our approach uses a variety of traditional and cutting-edge techniques to characterize small-scale landforms (high-resolution DEMs by micro-drone and LiDAR), to analyze soils and substrate properties in the field (GPR, ERT, geomagnetics, Field Portable XRF and XRD) and to provide chronological information (OSL, 14C, tree-ring dating). This approach is combined with a GIS for data integration. We present the most recent results and review important findings from the last several years. Studies conducted in the opencast mines focus on soil development and Late Quaternary geomorphodynamics and as well as past land use and the legacy of agriculture and woodland use. Our results regarding the human-induced geomorphodynamics are similar to those in other regions in Central Europe, but we also observe regional differences caused by the local setting, e.g., intensification of soil erosion coinciding with the expansion of farming of cultivated lands in the Slavic Middle Ages. By analyzing LiDAR data the largest area of historical charcoal production in the Northern European Lowland (NEL) has been revealed. We are clearly only beginning to understand the massive dimensions of charcoal production in the region and the impact on late Holocene geomorphodynamics. The usage of new high-resolution imagery is essential to identify small-scale anthropogenic landforms hidden in the landscape. Future work will consist of developing and improving our integrative approach. However, comprehensive ground truth data provided by the archaeological prospections in the open-cast mines are an excellent basis for GIS-based analyses of high-resolution ALS data and geomorphological research.}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{SchneiderTaklaRaabetal., author = {Schneider, Anna and Takla, Melanie and Raab, Alexandra and Raab, Thomas and Hirsch, Florian and R{\"o}sler, Horst}, title = {Mapping historic charcoal production fields from excavation to landscape scale}, series = {AGU Joint Assembly, Montreal, 2015, abstracts listing}, booktitle = {AGU Joint Assembly, Montreal, 2015, abstracts listing}, pages = {168}, abstract = {In the forefield of the open-cast mine J{\"a}nschwalde (north of Cottbus, Germany), archaeological excavations have revealed one of the largest charcoal production fields described so far. As remains of the historic charcoal kilns, small mounds of sediment rich in charcoal fragments and ash cover the soil surface. We applied a combination of methods for mapping such kiln relicts across a range of scales, in order to analyze the spatial distribution of kiln sites and to improve the understanding of historic forest use systems. In archaeological excavations in the mine forefield, the geometry of kiln relicts could be studied in high detail. We used a microdrone to record high-resolution photographs of excavation sites for the documentation of kiln site ground plans and other traces of historic land use. Based on airborne laser scanning elevation models, kiln site mapping was extended to areas beyond the mine forefield. Manual digitization from shaded relief maps was used for mapping kiln sites in further woodland areas surrounding an historic ironwork north of Cottbus. An automated mapping approach based on template matching was developed to detect charcoal production fields on a larger scale, and was applied for an area of about 1000 km2up to now. In archaeological excavations, about 900 kiln sites have been documented on an approximately 17 km2 large area. Excavation documentations and aerial photographs show variations in the kiln site ground plans. By manual digitization from Shaded Relief Maps, more than 5000 kiln sites with diameters up to 29 m were detected in the 32 km2 area of the royal forest J{\"a}nschwalder Heide north of Cottbus. First results of mapping for larger areas indicate similar densities, but smaller diameters of kiln sites in other charcoal production fields; and show that charcoal production is a so far underestimated component of the land use history in many areas in the Northern European Lowlands.}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{SchneiderHirschRaabetal., author = {Schneider, Anna and Hirsch, Florian and Raab, Alexandra and Bonhage, Alexander and Raab, Thomas}, title = {Assessing the legacy effects of historic charcoal production in Brandenburg, Germany}, series = {European Geosciences Union, General Assembly 2017, Vienna, Austria}, booktitle = {European Geosciences Union, General Assembly 2017, Vienna, Austria}, publisher = {European Geophysical Society}, address = {Katlenburg-Lindau}, abstract = {Charcoal produced in kilns or hearths was an important source of energy in many regions of Europe and Northern America until the 19th century, and charcoal production in hearths is still common in many other regions of the world. The remains of charcoal hearths are therefore a widespread legacy of historic land use in forest areas. Soils on charcoal hearth sites are characterized by a technogenic layer rich in charcoal and ash on top of the soil profile, and by a pyrogenic modification of substrates below the former hearth. The aims of our study are to examine how these alterations to the natural soil profiles affect the soil water regime and other soil physical properties, and to assess the relevance of these effects on the landscape scale. We present first results of a mapping of hearth site occurrence in forest areas in the state of Brandenburg, Germany, and of a characterization of the infiltration behaviour on hearth sites as compared with undisturbed forest soils. Results of mapping small-scale relief features from LIDAR-based digital elevation models show that charcoal hearths occur in a high density in many large forest areas throughout Brandenburg. In the areas studied so far, up to almost 3\% of the soil surface were found to be affected by the remains of historic hearths. First analyses of soil physical properties indicate differences in the infiltration characteristics of hearth site soils and undisturbed forest soils: Hood infiltrometer measurements show a very high spatial variability of hydraulic conductivity for hearth site soils, and water-drop-penetration-time tests reflect extremely high hydrophobicity of the technogenic layer on the sites. Results of dye tracer experiment show considerably strong preferential flow and therefore a higher spatial variability of soil wetness below the hearth remains. Overall, our first results therefore indicate that the legacy effects of historic charcoal production might significantly affect overall site conditions in forest areas with a high density of charcoal hearth remains.}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{HirschSchneiderRaabetal., author = {Hirsch, Florian and Schneider, Anna and Raab, Alexandra and Raab, Thomas and Ouimet, William and Dethier, David}, title = {Late Holocene biochar enrichment in soils - implications of an anthropogenic legacy for ecosystems}, series = {ICLEA Final Symposium 2017, Human Impact and Landscape Evolution in the Southern Baltic Lowlands, Abstract Volume \& Excursion Guide}, booktitle = {ICLEA Final Symposium 2017, Human Impact and Landscape Evolution in the Southern Baltic Lowlands, Abstract Volume \& Excursion Guide}, editor = {Schwab, Markus and Błaszkiewicz, Mirek and Raab, Thomas and Wilmking, Martin and Brauer, Achim}, publisher = {GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences}, address = {Potsdam}, doi = {10.2312/GFZ.b103-17037}, pages = {79 -- 81}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{SchneiderHirschRaabetal., author = {Schneider, Anna and Hirsch, Florian and Raab, Alexandra and Raab, Thomas}, title = {Dye tracer visualization of infiltration patterns in soils on historic charcoal hearth sites}, series = {ICLEA Final Symposium 2017, Human Impact and Landscape Evolution in the Southern Baltic Lowlands, Abstract Volume \& Excursion Guide}, booktitle = {ICLEA Final Symposium 2017, Human Impact and Landscape Evolution in the Southern Baltic Lowlands, Abstract Volume \& Excursion Guide}, editor = {Schwab, Markus and Błaszkiewicz, Mirek and Raab, Thomas and Wilmking, Martin and Brauer, Achim}, publisher = {GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences}, address = {Potsdam}, doi = {10.2312/GFZ.b103-17037}, pages = {150 -- 151}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{SchneiderHirschWechleretal., author = {Schneider, Anna and Hirsch, Florian and Wechler, Klaus-Peter and Raab, Alexandra and Raab, Thomas}, title = {Mapping a palaeosurface and archaeological site location in an anthropogenic drift sand area}, series = {ICLEA Final Symposium 2017, Human Impact and Landscape Evolution in the Southern Baltic Lowlands, Abstract Volume \& Excursion Guide}, booktitle = {ICLEA Final Symposium 2017, Human Impact and Landscape Evolution in the Southern Baltic Lowlands, Abstract Volume \& Excursion Guide}, editor = {Schwab, Markus and Błaszkiewicz, Mirek and Raab, Thomas and Wilmking, Martin and Brauer, Achim}, doi = {10.2312/GFZ.b103-17037}, pages = {152 -- 154}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{SchneiderRaabHirschetal., author = {Schneider, Anna and Raab, Alexandra and Hirsch, Florian and Bonhage, Alexander and Raab, Thomas}, title = {Assessing the legacies of historical charcoal production in Brandenburg}, series = {ICLEA Final Symposium 2017, Human Impact and Landscape Evolution in the Southern Baltic Lowlands, Abstract Volume \& Excursion Guide}, booktitle = {ICLEA Final Symposium 2017, Human Impact and Landscape Evolution in the Southern Baltic Lowlands, Abstract Volume \& Excursion Guide}, editor = {Schwab, Markus and Błaszkiewicz, Mirek and Raab, Thomas and Wilmking, Martin and Brauer, Achim}, publisher = {GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences}, address = {Potsdam}, doi = {10.2312/GFZ.b103-17037}, pages = {155 -- 156}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{HirschBauriegelBonhageetal., author = {Hirsch, Florian and Bauriegel, Albrecht and Bonhage, Alexander and Schneider, Anna and Raab, Thomas}, title = {Fuchserden in Brandenburg - Vorkommen, Mikromorphologie und Bodenchemie}, series = {Abstracts der Jahrestagung der Deutschen Bodenkundlichen Gesellschaft, G{\"o}ttingen, 2017}, booktitle = {Abstracts der Jahrestagung der Deutschen Bodenkundlichen Gesellschaft, G{\"o}ttingen, 2017}, publisher = {DBG}, address = {G{\"o}ttingen}, pages = {1}, language = {de} } @inproceedings{HirschMaatenTheunissenMaatenetal., author = {Hirsch, Florian and Maaten-Theunissen, Marieke van der and Maaten, Ernst van der and Schneider, Marcus and Bauriegel, Albrecht and Raab, Alexandra and Raab, Thomas}, title = {Soil physics and chemistry at two medieval ridge and furrow sites in northeastern Germany}, series = {European Geosciences Union, General Assembly 2018, Vienna, Austria}, booktitle = {European Geosciences Union, General Assembly 2018, Vienna, Austria}, publisher = {European Geophysical Society}, address = {Katlenburg-Lindau}, language = {en} } @misc{SchneiderHirschRaabetal., author = {Schneider, Anna and Hirsch, Florian and Raab, Alexandra and Raab, Thomas}, title = {Bodenkundlich-geomorphologische Untersuchung von Meilerpl{\"a}tzen um Weiherhammer}, series = {Beitr{\"a}ge zur Arch{\"a}ologie in der Oberpfalz und in Regensburg}, volume = {12}, journal = {Beitr{\"a}ge zur Arch{\"a}ologie in der Oberpfalz und in Regensburg}, issn = {1617-4461}, pages = {433 -- 448}, language = {de} } @misc{SchneiderHirschRaabetal., author = {Schneider, Anna and Hirsch, Florian and Raab, Alexandra and Raab, Thomas}, title = {Dye Tracer Visualization of Infiltration Patterns in Soils on Relict Charcoal Hearths}, series = {Frontiers in Environmental Sciences}, volume = {6}, journal = {Frontiers in Environmental Sciences}, doi = {doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2018.00143}, pages = {1 -- 14}, language = {en} } @misc{HirschRaabOuimetetal., author = {Hirsch, Florian and Raab, Thomas and Ouimet, William and Dethier, David and Schneider, Anna and Raab, Alexandra}, title = {Soils on Historic Charcoal Hearths: Terminology and Chemical Properties}, series = {Soil Science Society of America, International Soils Meeting, Soils Across Latitudes, San Diego 2019}, journal = {Soil Science Society of America, International Soils Meeting, Soils Across Latitudes, San Diego 2019}, language = {en} } @misc{DonovanSchneiderHirschetal., author = {Donovan, Sally and Schneider, Anna and Hirsch, Florian and Bonhage, Alexander and Raab, Alexandra and Raab, Thomas}, title = {Thermal conductivity of charcoal-richsoils-preliminary results from a study on relict charcoal hearth (RCH) sites from Germany and the USA}, series = {European Geosciences Union, General Assembly 2019, Vienna, Austria, 7-12 April 2019}, journal = {European Geosciences Union, General Assembly 2019, Vienna, Austria, 7-12 April 2019}, address = {Katlenburg-Lindau}, pages = {1}, language = {en} } @misc{BonhageMykhailovaHirschetal., author = {Bonhage, Alexander and Mykhailova, Larysa and Hirsch, Florian and Schneider, Anna and Raab, Thomas and Fischer, Thomas and Raab, Alexandra and Donovan, Sally and Ouimet, William}, title = {Effects of historical charcoal burning on soil landscapes in West Connecticut - Quantifying pyrogenic and organic soil carbon content of Technosols by FTIR analysis}, series = {European Geosciences Union, General Assembly 2019, Vienna, Austria, 7-12 April 2019}, journal = {European Geosciences Union, General Assembly 2019, Vienna, Austria, 7-12 April 2019}, address = {Katlenburg-Lindau}, language = {en} } @misc{SchneiderHirschRaabetal., author = {Schneider, Anna and Hirsch, Florian and Raab, Thomas and Raab, Alexandra}, title = {The temperature regime of a charcoal-enriched land use legacy soil}, series = {Soil Science Society of America Journal}, volume = {83}, journal = {Soil Science Society of America Journal}, number = {3}, issn = {1435-0661}, doi = {10.2136/sssaj2018.12.0483}, pages = {565 -- 574}, language = {en} } @misc{HirschSchneider, author = {Hirsch, Florian and Schneider, Anna}, title = {Architecture and soil stratigraphy of relict charcoal hearths in Europe and the USA}, series = {Check Object Integrity : Book of Abstracts, CAA 2019}, journal = {Check Object Integrity : Book of Abstracts, CAA 2019}, publisher = {Institute of Archaeology of Jagiellonian University}, address = {Krakau}, isbn = {978-83-948382-7-0}, pages = {304 -- 305}, abstract = {Relict charcoal hearths (RCH) are a widespread feature in forested areas in Europe and the USA. Before the usage of hard coal, charcoal from RCHs was the main energy source and chemical reagent for the production of iron from ore. Depending on region and age, RCHs have diameters CAA 2019 305 Poster session up to 30 m, and due to their size and shape they are nowadays often identified by GIS-analysis of widely available LiDAR data. We study the architecture and soil stratigraphy of RCHs in several type regions in the USA and Germany where high densities of RCHs are known (Connecticut, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania and Brandenburg, Bavaria) and propose a morphological classification scheme. Whereas RCHs on flatland mostly have a circular shape which is often surrounded by an about half a meter-wide ditch, RCHs on slopes are mostly elliptical and often have a different architecture than on flatland sites. While the RCH platforms in flatland are only about 30 cm higher than the surrounding area, the platform of RCHs on slopes has often a height of up to one meter in downslope direction. Therefore, RCHs on slopes are much easier to identify during GIS mapping than RCHs on flatland. Remarkably the size, shape and architecture between our studied RCHs in the USA and Germany are often very similar which could indicate common roots of collier's knowledge and technology that can be explained by immigration of European craftsmen to New England in the 18th and 19th century.}, language = {en} } @misc{SchneiderHirschBonhageetal., author = {Schneider, Anna and Hirsch, Florian and Bonhage, Alexander and Raab, Alexandra and Raab, Thomas}, title = {Verbreitung und Eigenschaften von Meilerb{\"o}den in Brandenburg}, series = {Erfassung und Bewertung von vorindustriellen Meilerstandorten - Workshop 19. Februar 2019}, journal = {Erfassung und Bewertung von vorindustriellen Meilerstandorten - Workshop 19. Februar 2019}, editor = {Raab, Thomas and Raab, Alexandra and Schopper, Franz}, publisher = {Brandenburgische Technische Universit{\"a}t Cottbus - Senftenberg, Fachgebiet Geopedologie und Landschaftsentwicklung}, address = {Cottbus}, doi = {10.26127/BTUOpen-4817}, pages = {23 -- 42}, language = {de} } @misc{SchoeberlIrvingPradhanetal., author = {Sch{\"o}berl, Florian and Irving, Stephanie and Pradhan, Cauchy and Bardins, Stanislav and Trapp, Christoph and Schneider, Erich and Kugler, G{\"u}nter and Bartenstein, Peter and Dietrich, Marianne and Brandt, Thomas and Zwergal, Andreas}, title = {Prolonged allocentric navigation deficits indicate hippocampal damage in TGA}, series = {Neurology : official journal of the American Academy of Neurology}, volume = {92}, journal = {Neurology : official journal of the American Academy of Neurology}, number = {3}, issn = {0028-3878}, doi = {10.1212/WNL.0000000000006779}, pages = {e234 -- e243}, abstract = {Objective To investigate long-term recovery of allocentric and egocentric spatial orientation as a sensitive marker for hippocampal and extrahippocampal network function in transient global amnesia (TGA). Methods A group of 18 patients with TGA performed an established real-space navigation paradigm, requiring allo- and egocentric spatial orientation abilities, 3 days (postacute stage) and 3 months (follow-up) after symptom onset. Visual exploration behavior and navigation strategy were documented by a gaze-controlled, head-fixed camera. Allo- and egocentric spatial orientation performance was compared to that of 12 age-matched healthy controls. Navigation-induced brain activations were measured using [18F]-fluorodeoxyglucose-PET in a subgroup of 8 patients in the postacute stage and compared to those of the controls. Results In the postacute stage, the patients navigated worse and had higher error rates than controls in allocentric (p = 0.002), but not in egocentric, route planning (p = 0.30), despite complete recovery of verbal (p = 0.58) and figural memory (p = 0.11). Until follow-up, allocentric navigation deficits improved, but higher error rates and reduced use of shortcuts persisted (p < 0.0001). Patients still exhibited relatively more fixations of unique landmarks during follow-up (p = 0.05). PET measurements during the postacute stage showed increased navigation-induced brain activations in the right hippocampus, bilateral retrosplenial, parietal, and mesiofrontal cortices, and cerebellar dentate nucleus in patients compared to controls (p < 0.005). Conclusions Patients with TGA show selective and prolonged deficits of allocentric spatial orientation. Activations in right hippocampal and extrahippocampal hubs of the cerebral navigation network functionally substitute for the deficit in creating and updating the internal cognitive map in TGA.}, language = {en} } @misc{BurasHirschSchneideretal., author = {Buras, Allan and Hirsch, Florian and Schneider, Anna and Scharnweber, Tobias and Maaten, Ernst van der and Cruz-Garc{\´i}a, Roberto and Raab, Thomas and Wilmking, Martin}, title = {Reduced above-ground growth and wood density but increased wood chemical concentrations of Scots pine on relict charcoal hearths}, series = {Science of The Total Environment}, volume = {717}, journal = {Science of The Total Environment}, issn = {1879-1026}, doi = {10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137189}, abstract = {Deciphering the drivers of tree growth is a central aim of dendroecology. In this context, soil conditions may play a crucial role, since they determine the availability of water and nutrients for trees. Yet, effects of systematically differing soil conditions on tree growth render a marginally studied topic. In this context, relict charcoal hearths (RCH) - a widespread legacy of anthropogenic charcoal production - render a valuable 'natural' experiment to study possible effects of artificially altered soil conditions on tree growth. We hypothesize, that the differing physico-chemical properties of RCH result in differing wood properties if compared to trees growing on unmodified soils. To test this hypothesis, we analyzed tree-growth, wood density, and wood elemental concentrations of Scots pine as well as physico-chemical soil properties. We applied a classic control-treatment design to compare RCH with unmodified soils. Our analyses identified significantly lower above-ground wood production but systematically higher wood elemental concentrations in RCH-trees compared to control trees. Since we could not identify treatment-specific growth patterns, we hypothesize the observed lower above-ground productivity of Scots pine to indicate an increased root-shoot ratio to compensate for a potentially lower plant water availability on RCH-sites. The observed higher wood elemental concentrations likely reflect higher soil elemental concentrations of Fe, Ca, K, and Mn in RCH soils. In conclusion, our study highlights diverse effects of RCH on tree growth and wood properties and strengthens the value of dendro-chemistry to use the tree-ring archive as proxy for soil conditions within a dendro-ecological context.}, language = {en} } @misc{HuberDreberHuberetal., author = {Huber, Christoph and Dreber, Anna and Huber, J{\"u}rgen and Johannesson, Magnus and Kirchler, Michael and Weitzel, Utz and Abell{\´a}n, Miguel and Adayeva, Xeniya and Ay, Fehime Ceren and Barron, Kai and Berry, Zachariah and B{\"o}nte, Werner and Br{\"u}tt, Katharina and Bulutay, Muhammed and Campos-Mercade, Pol and Cardella, Eric and Claassen, Maria Almudena and Cornelissen, Gert and Dawson, Ian G. J. and Delnoij, Joyce and Demiral, Elif E. and Dimant, Eugen and Doerflinger, Johannes Theodor and Dold, Malte and Emery, C{\´e}cile and Fiala, Lenka and Fiedler, Susann and Freddi, Eleonora and Fries, Tilman and Gasiorowska, Agata and Glogowsky, Ulrich and Gorny, Paul Matthias and Gretton, Jeremy David and Grohmann, Antonia and Hafenbr{\"a}dl, Sebastian and Handgraaf, Michel and Hanoch, Yaniv and Hart, Einav and Hennig, Max and Hudja, Stanton and H{\"u}tter, Mandy and Hyndman, Kyle and Ioannidis, Konstantinos and Isler, Ozan and Jeworrek, Sabrina and Jolles, Daniel and Juanchich, Marie and Raghabendra, Pratap K.C. and Khadjavi, Menusch and Kugler, Tamar and Li, Shuwen and Lucas, Brian and Mak, Vincent and Mechtel, Mario and Merkle, Christoph and Meyers, Ethan Andrew and Mollerstrom, Johanna and Nesterov, Alexander and Neyse, Levent and Nieken, Petra and Nussberger, Anne-Marie and Palumbo, Helena and Peters, Kim and Pirrone, Angelo and Qin, Xiangdong and Rahal, Rima Maria and Rau, Holger and Rincke, Johannes and Ronzani, Piero and Roth, Yefim and Saral, Ali Seyhun and Schmitz, Jan and Schneider, Florian and Schram, Arthur and Schudy, Simeon and Schweitzer, Maurice E. and Schwieren, Christiane and Scopelliti, Irene and Sirota, Miroslav and Sonnemans, Joep and Soraperra, Ivan and Spantig, Lisa and Steimanis, Ivo and Steinmetz, Janina and Suetens, Sigrid and Theodoropoulou, Andriana and Urbig, Diemo and Vorlaufer, Tobias and Waibel, Joschka and Woods, Daniel and Yakobi, Ofir and Yilmaz, Onurcan and Zaleskiewicz, Tomasz and Zeisberger, Stefan and Holzmeister, Felix}, title = {Competition and moral behavior: A meta-analysis of forty-five crowd-sourced experimental designs}, series = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences}, volume = {120}, journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences}, number = {23}, issn = {0027-8424}, doi = {10.1073/pnas.2215572120}, abstract = {Does competition affect moral behavior? This fundamental question has been debated among leading scholars for centuries, and more recently, it has been tested in experimental studies yielding a body of rather inconclusive empirical evidence. A potential source of ambivalent empirical results on the same hypothesis is design heterogeneity—variation in true effect sizes across various reasonable experimental research protocols. To provide further evidence on whether competition affects moral behavior and to examine whether the generalizability of a single experimental study is jeopardized by design heterogeneity, we invited independent research teams to contribute experimental designs to a crowd-sourced project. In a large-scale online data collection, 18,123 experimental participants were randomly allocated to 45 randomly selected experimental designs out of 95 submitted designs. We find a small adverse effect of competition on moral behavior in a meta-analysis of the pooled data. The crowd-sourced design of our study allows for a clean identification and estimation of the variation in effect sizes above and beyond what could be expected due to sampling variance. We find substantial design heterogeneity—estimated to be about 1.6 times as large as the average standard error of effect size estimates of the 45 research designs—indicating that the informativeness and generalizability of results based on a single experimental design are limited. Drawing strong conclusions about the underlying hypotheses in the presence of substantive design heterogeneity requires moving toward much larger data collections on various experimental designs testing the same hypothesis.}, language = {en} }