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The history of psychoanalysis has developed along two main routes: metapsychological (drive theory) and relational. So-called >relational psychoanalysis< derives from the convergence of several traditions – interpersonal and sociocultural (Sullivan, Fromm), object relations theory (Fairbairn), self psychology (Kohut), and intersubjective systems theory (Stolorow, Atwood, Orange) – enriched along many decades by a variety of strong contributions from Ferenczi to independent thinkers such as Bion, Winnicott, Bowlby, Pichon Rivière, W. and M. Baranger, J. Sandler, Ogden, and Bollas, among many others. Facing its main controversies in terms of theory, present psychoanalysis evolves between heuristic versus hermeneutic, intrapsychic versus intersubjective, fantasy versus trauma, conflict versus deficit, and drives versus motivational systems. Controversies in technique have also evolved from a neutrality and abstinence model to an optimal provision and frustration model experienced in mutuality but ethically balanced. This paper displays the main concepts of the relational perspective, in which intersubjectivity is both a constitutive frame for human beings and the essential way for change. Developments from infant research and neuroscience – and the deep social and cultural changes facing twenty-first century societies – promote a new scene for today's psychoanalysis in convergence with these relational proposals.
Psychoanalysis as a natural science: Reconsidering Freud's >scientistic self-misunderstanding<
(2016)
This paper centres on Habermas's judgement that when Freud assesses psychoanalysis as a natural science, this constitutes a scientific self-misunderstanding. The author discusses Brenner's conviction that Freud's view is not a misunderstanding but is true for psychoanalysis and rejects his conclusion. In the author's view, Freud's assessment of psychoanalysis must be seen as a misunderstanding whose basis lies in its subject. Unconscious figures assert themselves under the repetition compulsion in the same manner as natural laws, each of which asserts itself beyond individual consciousness. It was the discovery of the unconscious that led Freud to conceive of psychoanalysis as a natural science and it seems that this conception is rooted in the structural identity between unconscious and natural processes. Freud's misunderstanding of pseudo-nature as nature seems to be indebted to his energy concept. As it is impossible to deduce psychic energies and their distribution by means of the psychoanalytic method, this being dependent on language, the author recommends replacing the economic metapsychological viewpoint by an affective one. The author goes on further to discuss the object of psychoanalytic investigation, the psychoanalytic method used to acquire knowledge, and the function held by metapsychology.
Celem artykułu jest wskazanie miejsca i znaczenia w filozofii Ericha Fromma obecnych w jego pracach figur czasu mesjańskiego i rytuału sza¬batu. Powiązane ze sobą dają się odczytać jako integralna część koncepcji Fromma, prowadząca w jego myśli do pedagogii azylu – posiadającego istotny potencjał emancypacyjny i edukacyjny rozwiązania problemu alienacji współczesnego człowieka.
Psychoanalytic supervision in the new millennium. On pressing needs and impressing possibilities
(2016)
Having now completed its first century, psychoanalytic supervision has been and continues to be regarded as the cornerstone of psychoanalytic education; it is the primary means by which (1) psychoanalytic ideology becomes translated into practical product, and (2) budding analytic practitioners develop and grow in their therapeutic skills and professional identity. The supreme significance of supervision in contributing to the >making< of the competent psychoanalytic practitioner now seems a widely accepted given, even axiomatic. But as its second century gets underway, what have we learned from psychoanalytic supervision's first 100 years? What are its most pressing needs and, in turn, impressing possibilities at this time? And what needs to most change if psychoanalytic supervision is to most profitably advance in the years and decades ahead? In this paper, I would like to consider those questions, giving focus to five needs that seem to most require attention now: (1) making the practice of psychoanalytic treatment an increasingly competency-based, concretized learning affair; (2) enhancing the efficacy of supervisors through competency-based practice and training in psychoanalytic supervision; (3) more effectively incorporating existing technology and emerging technological advances into supervision and using them to enhance the psychoanalytic learning process; (4) better attending to matters of difference and diversity, and striving to seamlessly integrate them into the conceptualization and conduct of the psychoanalytic supervision experience; and (5) vigorously researching the psychoanalytic supervision process and working to establish an evidence base for supervisory practice.
Деструктивность относится к числу фундаментальных дискурсивных категорий, которые играют значительную роль в организации коммуникативного взаимодействия и определяют прагматику дискурса; ее изучение способствует пониманию некоторых механизмов и принципов коммуникации, а также идентификации стратегий и тактик, используемых деструктивной коммуникативной личностью. Актуальность настоящего исследования определяется нарастающими проявлениями агрессивности в различных типах дискурса и, соответственно, необходимостью расширения знаний о деструктивном поведении коммуникативной личности. Исследование базируется на теории дискурс-анализа и теории деструктивности (Z. Harris, T. van Dijk, A. Buss, E. Fromm, D. Ponton, K. Hacker, R. Wodak, Н.Д. Арутюнова, В.И. Карасик, М.Л. Макаров, Е.И. Шейгал и др.). Развивая теорию деструктивности Э. Фромма (1973), авторы уточняют понятие >деструктивности< по отношению к политическому дискурсу и соотносят его с родственным понятием агрессивности. В статье на материале отрывков из выступлений кандидатов на пост президента 2016 г. анализируется категория деструктивности в современном политическом дискурсе США. Особое внимание уделяется доминирующей деструктивной интенции – нанести вред репутации оппонента и уменьшить его политические шансы, а также функциям вербальной агрессии: с одной стороны, дискредитировать оппонента, с другой, настроить аудиторию против него/нее и вызвать у аудитории ощущение опасности, исходящей от политического оппонента. Проводится анализ вербальных и невербальных средств выражения деструктивности в политическом дискурсе США. Делается вывод о том, что оскорбительные реплики политиков – результат не спонтанного эмоционального всплеска, а тщательно продуманной деструктивной стратегии, в которой агональная природа политического дискурса стимулирует использование средств инструментальной агрессии (Басс, 1971) ради борьбы за власть, понижения статуса оппонента и ухудшения его публичного имиджа.
The author analyzes the temporal dimension of depression by making reference to one of the clinical cases he treated and re-examining a clinical case analyzed by Edith Jacobson. According to the result of his observations, the developmental psychodynamics of a depressive state normally appears to take place in two distinct phases: a first narcissistic loss, which gives rise to an integrative conflict and to the formation of a certain identificatory structure, is later followed by a second narcissistic loss, which leads to the real depressive state. The two phases present a specific, intrinsic connection constituted by the implication of the same identificatory element of the self, recognition of which can favour a clinical work that more closely adheres to the deep dynamics of depression.
Extreme and complex traumatization represents a severe problem in today's world. Many traumatized individuals and their families live in difficult conditions in refugee camps, in shelters, and in exile. Treatment and rehabilitation approaches thus need to take social and cultural conditions into consideration. This paper will discuss how psychoanalytic therapy may be helpful for severely traumatized patients, as well as the mechanisms of change in the therapeutic process. It focuses on how traumatic experiences are actualized in the transference and bring the analyst into a situation where enactments inevitably occur. It will be shown how these processes may lead to a symbolization of nonsymbolized reminiscences of traumatic experiences. Psychoanalytic therapy with patient with complicated loss experiences will be analyzed, and some conclusions based on this and others researched therapies will be discussed. The advantages of working with trauma-related material in the transference will be considered.
The article focuses on the analysis of chosen fragments of Erich Fromm concerning his utopia of a healthy society based on a specific cathegory of >be<. The presented problematics is built on widely understood socio-cultural conditions which had a great impact on philosopher’s works towards creation of the Utopian vision of the Better World, free from all sorts of totalitarian ideological extremism and paradoxes used in practice.
Psychoanalysis cannot distance itself from culture and its transformations. It cannot ignore cultural ideals, which each individual uniquely appropriates to produce identifications, find his place within the human community, express his desires, and manifest the suffering occasioned by each difficult experience. This article will try to demonstrate this necessity of taking culture into account by drawing on Lacan's approach, which is based on the lessons of Freud. The author emphasizes the fact that every culture has its >discontents,< which stem from the incompleteness at the very heart of human experience, and that our cultural constructions are therefore constantly being reworked. By doing so, she aims to cast a different perspective on the relationship between the psyche and culture, and bring out the inherent complexity of the now fashionable notion of the >decline of the father,< which is systematically used to explain the new symptoms and ills of modern society. By detecting this decline, by searching for the visible signs of this deficit, do we not instead end up creating them ourselves?
Praca ma na celu porównanie koncepcji filozoficznych Ericha Fromma i Michela Foucaulta. W szczególności, rozważana jest w niej refleksja obu myślicieli nad XX-wiecznymi totalitaryzmami, ich stosunek do teo¬rii Marksa i Freuda oraz problem ujęcia historii w ich pracach. Z analizy tej wyłaniają się dwie odmienne hermeneutyki w ramach teorii krytycz¬nej. Jedna nakierowana na emancypację w imię materialistycznej na¬tury ludzkiej (Fromm), druga natomiast na emancypację od >człowieka< (Foucault). Pomimo iż obie koncepcje są odmienne, nie są przeciwstaw¬ne. Filozofia Fromma pozwala dostrzec ograniczenia filozofii Foucaulta i odwrotnie.
The field of social work is currently wrestling with a number of divergent theories and concepts as it seeks to discover ways of thinking about social issues, client worlds, and best practices. Yet many of those eclectically gathered theories are not aligned logically or philosophically. This has led to a disjointed, ad hoc, and disunited theoretical basis within the field that has, arguably, weakened its collective effectiveness, reputation, and impact. Erich Fromm (1900-1980), a German-born psychoanalyst and philosopher, offers a number of theoretical ideas, stances, and directions that may improve social work’s theoretical underpinnings and perhaps even provide some foundational elements useful for the creation of a unified theory of human functioning in the world. This article explores Fromm’s body of work with the intention of applying a selection of his ideas to social work theory, policy, and practice. Remedies to resolve the bifurcation of psyche-based and society-based theories are discussed. Following this is a presentation of Fromm’s concept of >social character< as well as implications for social work practice.
>What is in the mind of the author?< >What is in the mind of the reviewer?< >What is in the mind of the reader?< >What is in mind of the teacher?< >What is in the in the mind of the publisher?< These themes were discussed in a panel: >“The psychoanalytical journal, writing and evaluation of psychoanalytical papers,< at the XVIII International Forum of the IFPS, held in Kaunas (Lithuania), in September 2014.
Orientasi Karakter Perilaku Aktivis Mahasiswa [Character Orientation of Students Activst Behavior]
(2016)
Penelitian ini dilakukan berdasarkan adanya perilaku mahasiswa yang menarik diri dari lingkungan organisasi. Permasalahan yang diangkat oleh peneliti merupakan hasil tinjauan budaya dalam penyelenggaraan pendidikan politik di Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta. Oleh karena itu, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui, memahami dan memaknai dikotomi eksistensial Erich Fromm dalam membantu subyek mengatasi alienasi organisasi. Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif. Subyek penelitian dipilih menggunakan teknik purposive sampling sejumlah tiga orang mahasiswa. Metode pengumpulan data menggunakan wawancara, observasi partisipan, dan dokumentasi. Teknik analisis data menggunakan reduksi data, display data, lalu kesimpulan. Uji keabsahan data menggunakan teknik triangulasi data, yaitu triangulasi sumber dan metode. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa subyek AS dan ANU menggunakan orientasi karakter produktif dengan persentase sebesar 45,32 dan 22,37. Sedangkan subyek KJ menggunakan orientasi karakter nonproduktif dengan persentase sebesar -1,47.
Debussy attempted to conceal the stresses of his early life: his father leaving to fight in the Franco-Prussian War, his younger siblings being sent to live with an aunt, and Debussy remaining alone with his mother. His early-discovered musical talent provided him with a sense of continuity throughout his life. However, he felt his training at the Paris Conservatoire to be restrictive and rebelled against it in the musical style he developed. Debussy’s opera Pelléas et Mélisande gave him an opportunity to creatively depict these thwarted passions and his aversion to restriction.
Based on our clinical experience with anorexia, we propose to distinguish two paradoxical aspects of this disorder. On the one hand, anorexia may serve as a shield and support to open up a space for subjectivity, promoting a separation from the mother. Eros is responsible for this defense of subjectivity and of the assumption of one's own wish. But the anorexic individual may, on the other hand, be subjected to the death drive and to the voice of a sadistic and ferocious superego that demands immediate obedience. The death drive, present in different combinations with Eros, is an obstacle to the work of the psychoanalyst.
My father, Herbert Rosenfeld
(2016)
This is the modified version of the powerpoint that Angela Rosenfeld, the elder daughter of Herbert Rosenfeld (1910–1986) – one of Melanie Klein's most important collaborators – presented in Nuremberg, his native town, on October 5, 2014, upon the invitation of the German Psychoanalytic Society (DPG). In it, Angela Rosenfeld reconstructs not only her father's main life events, but also her personal relationship to him and the family climate in which she grew up. The traumas brought about by Hitler's rise to power in 1933 are partly still reflected in the holes and/or open questions that the author herself became aware of while writing and presenting the paper – and which profoundly touched and moved her audience.
Este estudio de tipo cualitativo, tuvo como objetivo identificar cómo la espiritualidad es un factor de resiliencia ante la cultura de la violencia que viven los jóvenes que asisten a la Unidad Educativa Arquidiocesana >Bicentenario del Natalicio de El Libertador< de Maracaibo. Se realizó durante el período 2012-2013. La recolección de la información se realizó mediante entrevistas a profundidad a 10 adolescentes estudiantes de esta Unidad Educativa, de los cuales 6 fueron mujeres y 4 varones, cuyas edades oscilaron entre 13 y 17 años y se encontraban cursando 8vo, 5to y 6to año de Bachillerato. El análisis se realizó mediante la Teoría Fundamentada. Los principales autores que guiaron el estudio fueron Frankl (1990), Llobet (2005), González y Ginart (2011) Fromm (1978) y Walsh (2004). Como resultados, se determinó que para los estudiantes de esta Unidad Educativa, la espiritualidad ha sido un factor de Resiliencia ayudándolos a enfrentar la cultura de la violencia. Estos jóvenes han tenido proceso de interiorización y crecimiento interior gracias a la experiencia espiritual, como una búsqueda, de salud mental, motivación, comportamiento, conciencia, que imprime identidad y proyecta al ser humano hacia nuevos y mejores horizontes. Esta espiritualidad no está conectada con una Iglesia en especial, ni única, sino con una experiencia, con un ambiente, con una manera de vivir, de ser, de estar y de superar los problemas. Permitiéndoles Violencia, espiritualidad y resiliencia en estudiantes de la Unidad Educativa Arquidiocesana >Bicentenario del Natalicio de El Libertador<.
In his 1918 paper >Lines of advance in psychoanalytic therapy,< Freud suggested that psychoanalysis should reach out to the masses on a larger scale. >We need to alloy the pure gold of analysis with the copper of direct suggestion,< he noted. Time has proven this assertion to be true. As Freud had anticipated, the psychoanalytic technique has left doctors’ offices to enter a number of different areas: from hospital and state mental health centers to clinics, social work organizations, and nongovernmental health institutions. Moreover, some authors, following the paths established by Freud, have conceptually enriched psychoanalytic theory and eventually achieved a voice of their own. Hence, one might wonder whether today, in the early twenty-first century, >pure gold< psychoanalysis exists, whether there is a psychoanalyst who, with uncontaminated theories, is conceptually pure gold, the owner of the truth. This paper tries to find the common denominator of current theories of psychoanalysis through the analysis of the different meanings of psychoanalysis today. To do this, it has taken as a model the metaphor of a short story written by Raymond Carver entitled >What we talk about when we talk about love.< In that story, the partners in two marriages talk about the different meanings of the word >love.< Some years later, Gordon Lish, Carver's editor, admitted that he had retouched Carver’s original text to help its publication. This controversy allows us to consider unorthodox practices carried out by Freud that sometimes have been silenced in the pursuit of maintaining >the pure gold of psychoanalytic practice.<
This article examines the sociology, psychological thinker and analyzer of Erich Fromm’s work of to have or to be and its relevance to the ICT implementation policy in education. Many previous researches that have been conducted by many researchers in regard with ICT implementation policy whether in developed or underdeveloped countries, western to east, they put the blame on teachers’ capacity with any kinds of pitfalls, ranging from lack of confidence to lack of skill of ICT use. Whilst in larger scale of society capacity; central and local education authorities, and school as well to be blamed by researchers as lack of support from them, whether in form of facilities, motivation, professional development until lack of partnership and policy support. Therefore, this conceptual paper tries to see this phenomenon from other angle of Erich Fromm’s analysis of >To Have or To Be?<
Novel >For the Love of My Son< (LS) karya Margaret Davis merupakan salah satu novel terjemahan yang mengangkat kondisi eksistensi manusia. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mendeskripsikan kepribadian tokoh utama dalam novel LS karya Margaret Davis dengan menggunakan pendekatan kepribadian Marxian (Erich Fromm). Metode yang digunakan adalah kualitatif dengan teknik analisis isi dengan ciri deskriptif. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan (1) Dilema eksistensi manusia pada tokoh utama dalam novel LS: menikah, memiliki anak, bahagia, sedih, bertanggungjawab, kesepian dan mau kekerjasama; (2) Kebutuhan tokoh utama dalam menghadapi eksistensinya: perhatian kepada keluarga, rasa bangga terhadap anak dan menjaga hubungan baik antara ibu dan anak; (3) Mekanisme melarikan diri dari kebebasan; a) Margaret berusaha untuk membantu orang lain untuk mendapatkan cinta tetapi tidak memberi hal positif kepada dirinya sendiri (negatif); b) Berusaha keras mengirim penjahat ke penjara untuk mendapatkan kekuatan atau kepuasan batin (positif). c) Menyesuaikan diri dengan pihak luar demi mendapatkan kebebasan (positif).
Статья посвящена анализу альтернативных моделей правовой социализации человека в современном российском обществе. Автор исходит из того, что в процессе формирования законопослушного поведения ведущим фактором выступает характер социально-правовых отношений (авторитарный или гуманистический) между личностью, обществом и государством. Основной чертой гуманистической персоноцентрической модели является признание доминирования внутренних духовных сил и качеств человека в процессе его становления полноценным субъектом общественно-правых отношений. Ее альтернативой выступает авторитарная социоцентрическая модель, в качестве основных детерминант здесь признаются внешние общественные условия и факторы, определяющие вектор социально-правового развития индивида. В процессе исследования перспективной теоретической модели правовой социализации личности в российском социуме были использованы идеи персонализма Н. А. Бердяева, Э. Мунье и С. Л. Франка, концепции социального действия М. Вебера, Т. Парсонса и Ю. Хабермаса, социально-психологические идеи Э. Фромма. В работе сделан вывод о том, что традиционной, исторически обусловленной национальной моделью правовой социализации в российском социуме выступает авторитарная модель. Однако общественный прогресс требует развития гуманистической персоноцентрической модели правовой социализации, способствующей формированию субъект-субъектных отношений в правовой жизни. Приоритетом модели выступают естественные права и свободы человека, составляющие одну из экзистенциальных основ персональной идентичности.
The authors present a materialist analysis of the effects of neoliberalism in education. Specifically, they contend that neoliberalism is a form of cultural invasion that begets necrophilia. Neoliberalism is necrophilous in promoting a cultural desire to fix fluid systems and processes. Such desire manufactures both individuals known and culturally felt experiences of alienation which are, it is argued, symptomatic of an imperialist nostalgia that permeates educational policy and practice. The authors point to >unschooling in schools< as a mechanism for resisting the necrophilous tendencies of contemporary formations of education.
Margaret Widdemer's >The Watcher< tells about how the watcher has wonderful love to her beloved. The purpose of this study is to analyze the intrinsic elements of the poem and the kind of love in the poem. The author uses psychological approach to prove that the love in this poem is between mother and her children based on Erich Fromm's theory of love. The author uses library research in her study for collecting the data. The author obtained the data and information related to the object from the books and internet source. The result of this study shows that the poem talks about the love of mother to her children. It can be categorized into motherly love.
The neoliberal character rests on the credo—>There is no alternative.< There is no alternative to deregulation, free trade, individual entrepreneurship, and competition. This is believed by economists and intellectuals as the only way for humanity to be liberated from the feudal past. It is argued that this new economic liberalism reclaims the lost humanity of man. It is therefore through neoliberal perspectives that freedom and human creativity are realized. There is no other way but to engross oneself in this economic mainstream as transnational companies, through the help of IMF and the WB, continuously occupy the social sphere. Economically, as individuals adapt to this capitalist mainstream, they assimilate their environment in accordance to the character matrix predominantly enforced by neoliberal apologists. Consequently, human potentialities are being absorbed into a system controlled by the very socio-economic apparatuses of modern society. Human reason becomes its very instrument as it is refashioned into a reified system of thinking. Human consciousness is captured in a single dimensional space propagated by this liberal economy. Individual growth, creativity, spontaneity, and productivity are all incorporated and hobbled in order to transmit the structures of neoliberal paradigm.
Hegel’den Marcuse’ye Yabancılaşma Olgusu [On the Concept of Alienation: From Marcuse to Hegel]
(2016)
Günümüz insanı, kendi üretimine ve tüketimine, doğal ve toplumsal çevresine, diğer insanlara ve en önemlisi kendi özüne yabancılaşmış durumdadır. Teknolojik gelişmeyle birlikte insanlarda ve toplumda bunalım, yalnızlaşma, kimlik yitimi ve nesneleşme söz konusu olmuştur. Bu süreçte insan içeriksiz ve anlamsız bir varlık haline gelmiştir. Yabancılaşma sorununu merkeze alan bazı çağdaş filozoflar değerlerden ve ideallerden arındırılmış olan insanın, varoluş açısından anlamsızlaştığını, yabancılaştığını ve çözülmeye başladığını ileri sürmektedir. Bu makalede Hegel, Feuerbach, Marx, Lukács, Fromm ve Marcuse’nin yabancılaşma olgusu hakkındaki fikirleri ele alınıp tartışılmaktadır.
The purpose of this study was to analyze problems related to the mechanism whereby students can accept corporal punishment during extracurricular sports activities with reference to the books Escape from Freedom and Man for Himself that were central to Erich Fromm's authority theory. Specifically, the author focused on the concepts of >authoritarian character,< >authoritarian ethics,< and >authoritarian conscience.< Fromm pointed out that anxiety prompted Germany's citizens to give up their freedom in order to obey authoritarian powers such as Hitler and the Nazis. Students taking part in extracurricular sports activities were considered from the viewpoint of Fromm's authority theory. It was revealed that students comply with a leader's authority in order to relieve anxiety, and have positive thoughts about corporal punishment. Furthermore, it was found that such acceptance of corporal punishment succeeded in eliminating conspicuous suffering, but not in removing any underlying conflicts. Fromm pointed that fear of anxiety was relieved by spontaneous activity. To achieve spontaneous activity by students, it was suggested that some form of measure that does not create the type of partnership that occurred between Germany's citizens and Hitler would be desirable for any relationship between the leader of extracurricular sports activities and the students.
Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie problematyki wolności pojawiającej się w myśli Ericha Fromma poprzez odniesienie jej do współczesnego kształtowania prawa i pozycji jednostki w systemie demokratycznym. Za podstawę rozważań przyjęto tezę badacza wskazującą, że lęk człowieka przed wolnością i indywidualizmem stał się główną przyczyną rozwoju dwudziestowiecznych totalitaryzmów. Zdaniem autorki, diagnoza Fromma oraz wydobyte przez niego zagrożenia autonomii, mogą stanowić wzór ochrony wolności również we współczesnym systemie prawnym. Artykuł zawiera analizę mechanizmów i rozwiązań prawnych, dzięki którym możliwe jest wzmacnianie indywidualnej sprawczości i pozycji jednostki w demokracji. Akcentuje również niebezpieczeństwa, jakie dla wolności niesie współczesne myślenie o prawie, takie jak nadmierna jurydyzacja życia. Istotną częścią artykułu jest zbadanie poruszanych problemów z perspektywy regulacji zastosowanych w polskim systemie prawnym, a także zwrócenie uwagi na nowe ponadpaństwowe zjawiska i ruchy takie jak Liquid Democracy i Partie Piratów.
Madness is a crucial theme in the Beasts’ literature and life. This article distinguishes between individual and social madness and shows their influence on the Beats, using the ideas of Erich Fromm, Michel Foucault and many others and also using the Beats’ own works and ideas. The focus is of course more on Burroughs, Ginsberg, and Kerouac. The Beats did not adjust themselves to society because they believed that American society was so irrational and mad that it brutally suppressed their individuality, repressed their natural desires, and forced them to consider themselves mad just because of lack of adjustment. As opposed to those who regard lack of adjustment as the cause of individual madness, there are others who enunciate that the individual is not to blame but society which is inattentive to individuals’ potentialities and does not adjust itself to their needs and aspirations.
Niniejszy artykuł jest próbą refleksji nad relacją jednostka – kultura, a ściślej: refleksji dotyczącej społeczno-kulturowych uwarunkowań w pro¬cesie poszukiwania przez jednostkę jej tożsamości osobowej. Zasadnicze pytania brzmią w tym kontekście tak: W jaki sposób kulturowe wzorce, moda, obowiązujące normy i wartości oraz religia determinują moje >ja<? Czy da się oddzielić (nazwijmy umownie) moje >ja wewnętrzne< od >ja kulturowego<, to jest ról społecznych, przez które następuje samoiden¬tyfikacja? Czy >ja kulturowe< jest wynikiem odpowiedzi (a więc: odpo¬wiedzialności), jakiej jednostka udziela sama sobie, czy też mamy do czynienia z konformistyczną maską, rodzajem samooszustwa?