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Ievads jeb Fromms un Latvija
(2014)
This paper explores the change processes that took place in a woman, an ex-prostitute, in the context of psychotherapeutic treatment over a period of over three years. The treatment took place within a relational psychotherapeutic setting influenced by the ideas formulated by Sándor Ferenczi regarding trauma, as well as by his intense involvement with and commitment to his patients, as expressed in his Clinical Diary of 1932 (Ferenczi, 1988). Zoe, the current patient, was a woman born in Latin America who emigrated to Spain at the age of 28 and became trapped, for nearly a decade, in a mesh of prostitution networks. She eventually entered regular psychotherapeutic treatment at the age of 39. Her change process is an example of the mutual influence between the factors of resilience that characterized her and the opportunity for co-creation that the treatment signifies. The marks of the intense traumatic burden of Zoe's history and the rays of sunlight and hope that she is currently experiencing become intermingled in the dreams evoked and brought to the treatment setting. Zoe's capacity for resilience and the potential for founding self-object relations, ethically implied, that therapists can offer construct a scenario that brings back to life the essence of Ferenczi from 1932.
The boundary concept has been central to discussions on ethics and psychoanalysis over the past few decades. The main distinction has been between less malignant boundary crossings and more harmful violations. More recently, the concept has been criticized as not discriminating between technique and ethics. The author argues that these problems are connected to the way the boundary concept is defined. He suggests that it is specified to indicate a delimitation of an analytic area of conduct. In an analogous manner, an area of ethical conduct is framed by a boundary between ethical and unethical actions in the treatment situation. The analytic area has a narrower limitation than ethics and a stricter articulation of its concept of attitude; not all unanalytic actions are unethical. This simple model of interpersonally specified boundaries allows us to discriminate between different kinds of transgression in analytic work. In addition to violations and crossings, a third instance is described denoting a transgression of the analytic but not the ethical boundary. These can be called boundary stretchings, and are either intended or unintended deviations of method. The slippery slope mechanism of ethical misconduct is an imminent risk if boundary stretchings are ignored and not subject to scrutiny and analysis.
The centrality of the supervisory relationship to the professional development of supervisees may encourage dependency needs and regressive wishes. This process may undermine the delicate balance in supervision between an optimal didactic tension and an atmosphere of calmness and security. The present paper advises supervisors to take into account the gap in power and interests between their supervisees and themselves, and the temptation that may arise within them to use their supervisees' regression in order to avoid resistance. Such awareness will help them make controlled and appropriate use of such analytic powers and maintain the balance between supervisees' >regressive selves< and >mature selves.< In addition, a perception of supervisory relations as a space of mutual alternating regressive states is offered as an important aspect of supervisor–supervisee communication.
What are the competences required to satisfactorily practice effective or >good enough< psychoanalytic supervision? In this paper, I would like to consider that question. Over the past approximate 15-year period, increasing attention has been directed toward more specifically identifying and defining the components of competent psychoanalytic practice. But any parallel attention toward identifying and defining the components of competent psychoanalytic supervision practice has, in comparison, been sorely limited if not virtually absent. If we are to best practice competent psychoanalytic supervision and best train future psychoanalytic supervisors for competent practice, effort needs to be made to concretely delineate the competences that are requisite for such practice. In what follows, I present and adapt six broad-based families of internationally relevant supervision competence areas for use in psychoanalytic supervision: (1) knowledge about/understanding of psychoanalytic supervision models, methods, and intervention; (2) knowledge about/skill in attending to matters of ethical, legal, and professional concern; (3) knowledge about/skill in managing psychoanalytic supervision relationship processes; (4) knowledge about/skill in conducting psychoanalytic supervisory assessment and evaluation; (5) knowledge about/skill in fostering attention to difference and diversity; and (6) openness to/utilization of a self-reflective, self-assessment stance in psychoanalytic supervision. Although by no means an exhaustive list, 30 supervision competences (five per family) are proposed as significant for guiding competent psychoanalytic supervision practice and supervisor training, and a brief explanatory comment is offered in support of each broad-based family of competences.
Die politische Funktion der Gedenkkerzen. Über die Rolle der Juden im Zeitalter des Neoliberalismus
(2014)
Starting from the concept of confusion of tongues between passion and tenderness, the authors illustrate two clinical situations of traumatized children and adults and try to show how these kinds of patient are not able to give voice to and symbolically represent their archaic anxieties connected with their having been Ferenczian >unwelcome children.< Therefore, in the therapeutic situation, they often make use of the language of >passion< and sexualization in order to communicate to the analyst their early broken intimacy and their traumatized >tenderness,< related to a lack of parental libidinal involvement and of maternal permeability to their raw emotions, which gave rise to their >passion of death.< Sketching out two clinical cases (an adolescent and an adult), the authors describe how, in their opinion, this confusion of tongues may be the only way for some patients to represent and share the traumatic events of their past, while at the same time it may become a deep-rooted, strong, rigid, and exciting defense mechanism against an early child depression connected with devitalizing unconscious identifications.
This article illustrates the psychoanalyst's reverie as it appeared in analytic work with a child patient who had suffered an early trauma. According to Bion and later Ogden, the analyst's reverie can take many forms, including different sound images. During the analysis of the traumatized child, the analyst's reverie developed from a simple tune derived from an aria belonging to a cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach, to a more tangled journey through the music of Bach and the story of the child. Bion's theory of containment and reverie, and its further development by Ogden and others, is described. The author tries to show how impressions in art can help the analyst to understand the patient and develop his or her sensitivity to the human condition.
A partir de las tesis elaboradas por el psicólogo social Erich Fromm (1977) respecto a los marcos de orientación y devoción que guían parte del comportamiento humano en sociedad, se cons- truye un sistema teórico-metodológico cuyo objeto de estudio, categorías, subcategorías y ejes temáticos derivan en un instrumento denominado: >Cuestionario sobre marcos de orientación ética de estudiantes de la UNED<, el cual se utiliza en el proyecto de investigación de la Cátedra de Teología titulado: >En qué creen los jóvenes? Marcos de orientación ética de estudiantes de la UNED<. Interesa que este instrumento sea una herramienta válida para sondear la orientación ética de la población con que se trabaja en ese proyecto y constituya, además, un aporte novedoso en el área de la investigación social en torno a temáticas similares. Palabras clave: Orientaciones éticas, Erich Fromm, investigación social, estudiantes universitarios.
Fromm: Liebe als Kunst
(2014)
The authors attempt to outline the historical course of the Hellenic Society of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy (HSPP). They put forward several hypotheses concerning the dynamics of its foundation and evolution. The HSPP was founded in 1977 by five Greek psychoanalysts and psychoanalytic psychotherapists trained abroad, after three decades of fruitless attempts at establishing psychoanalysis in Greece. The authors sustain that the foundation of the HSPP addressed the complex problems of Greek society in the 1970s. The request for the founding of an institution for psychoanalytic therapy and training can be linked to a search for new orientations in thought that would enhance the working-through of traumas that had marked Greek society in the previous decades; these traumas played a role in the insurmountable problems in establishing psychoanalysis in Greece and in the difficulties met by the emancipation of Greek psychiatry from asylum-centered practice. The HSPP remained the only psychoanalytic institution in Greece until the foundation of the Hellenic Psychoanalytic Society in 1984. One of the main traits of its historical course has been the effort to shape a psychoanalytic organization directed towards the clinical reality of Greek society.
Against the background of a condensed sketch of the psychotherapeutic tradition in Sweden, I indicate my own path to the International Federation of Psychoanalytic Societies (IFPS). The 1962 Forum, held in Amsterdam, at which the IFPS was founded, is depicted through a young man's eyes. Some viewpoints are given on the importance of the IFPS's existence. The development of the journal International Forum of Psychoanalysis is also described and commented on.
Eden Halt. An Antrim Memoir
(2014)
Erich Fromm's Social Psychological Theory of Religion: Toward the X-experience and the City of Being
(2014)
Статья посвящена проблеме становления личности в современном информационном обществе, основными чертами которого являются его информатизация, создание новых интеллектуальных технологий, ускорение темпов развития техники, превращение информации в важнейший глобальный ресурс человечества. Автор анализирует психоаналитический подход к рассмотрению личности З. Фрейда, К.Г. Юнга и Э. Фромма. Затрагивается проблема целостности личности и пути ее достижения. Единое информационное пространство, также как и единое психическое пространство (коллективное бессознательное) ставят перед личностью две противоположные задачи: преодолеть разобщенность, созданную личными границами собственного >Я< и объединиться с обществом в поисках целостности, и сформировать свое личное пространство, выкроить в этой общности свою личную персональную зону комфорта, где личность сможет получить ощущение свободы и осознание своей уникальности, и, как ни удивительно, также целостности. Раскрыта проблема виртуальной реальности и ее влияния на формирование самосознания личности. Показаны позитивные и негативные аспекты влияния информационных технологий на самоидентификацию личности в современном пространстве.
Предметом исследования данной статьи является сущность любовного чувства, выражаю щаяся в концепции Платона, трактующей любовь как стремление восполнить утраченную целостность, которая была возрождена и по-новому ранжирована в трудах представителей гуманистической психоло-гии: Эриха Фромма, Гордона Олпорта, Карен Хорни, Гарри Салливана и других. Автор рассматривает различные виды любви, освещает проблему оскудения эмоционального мира современного человека, в сравнении, например, с античным греком, появления новых невротических видов любви, обусловленных проникновени- ем рыночных отношений в самые глубинные и интимные стороны человеческой жизни. В работе в различных комбинациях в зависимости от поставленных задач использовались общенаучные методы исследования: метод сравнительного анализа, синтез, структурный и системный методы. Научная новизна данной статьи состоит в том, что в ней освещена идея любви Платона, возрожденная иполучившая философско-антропологическое осмысление в неофрейдизме, что позволило рассмотреть фено-мен любви в >человеческом измерении<. Автором было акцентировано внимание, на том, что представите-лями данного направления был сделан огромный вклад в изучении данной темы, а не только темы личности, индивидуальности, ценности человека. Любовь существует в разных формах, можно говорить о ее много- образных проявлениях, меняющихся от эпохи к эпохе, различных видах, но существует глубинная сущностьлюбви, выражающаяся в тоске человека по утраченной целостности и стремлении восполнить свою фрагментарность, разорванность, незавершенность в продуктивном союзе с другим человеком. Эмоциональный мир современного человека оскудевает, появляются новые невротические формы проявления любви, подме- няющие живые чувства рыночными отношениями. В гуманистической психологии впервые за долгое время было привлечено внимание к теме любви, была возрождена концепция любви как разрешения главной проблемы человеческого бытия, данная тема была ранжирована на материале современного общества.
The aim of this article is to rethink the authority in education tentatively. For this purpose, this article pays attention to a conception called >rational authority<, which was presented by Erich Fromm (1900-80), who was famous sociopsychologist in the 20th century. Many studies of pedagogy or educational science have emphasized the need of the authority in education. But most of them tend to discuss a desirable quantity of the authority and do not fully have qualitative discrimination of the authority in educational fields. However, Erich Fromm's thoughts on authority seem to have potentiality for that qualitative discrimination. According to Fromm's early texts, especially in Escape from Freedom (1941) and Man for Himself (1947), >rational authority< have four characteristics. That is, 1) >rational authority< is ruled by the elements of love, admiration and gratitude, 2) it can become the model of the identification generally or partially, 3) the authority has its source in competence, and 4) it is always temporary. It is certain that these characteristics are rather abstractive, but in considering works of his latter period, the dynamics between >rational authority< and >inhibiting authority< is suggested. This dynamism hints for the possibility of rethinking of the authority in education.
Gefühls(leben). Wie sollte ich sein oder wer bin ich wirklich. Typecript, Berlin 2014, 151 pp.
(2014)
Nach 1918 setzte sich in der deutschen Psychoanalyse ein nationalzentralistisches Organisationsprinzip durch – gegen die Option, eine zweite süddeutsche Vereinigung neben der Berliner Gruppe (ab 1926 DPG) zu schaffen. Berlin erlangte in der Freud-Schule die Zuständigkeit für ganz Deutschland. Andere Gruppen wurden der DPG als »Arbeitsgemeinschaften« zugeordnet; lokale Kandidaten mussten einen Aufnahmevortrag in Berlin halten. Die damit gestiftete Spannung trat vor allem gegenüber der Frankfurter/Südwestdeutschen Arbeitsgemeinschaft hervor, die 1926 maßgeblich von Karl Landauer gegründet wurde. Sie war mit zuletzt 4–5 fertigen Analytikern die größte Gruppe in Deutschland außerhalb Berlins. Landauer, in Wien geschult und ab 1925 Mitglied in Berlin, führte einige Lehranalysen durch, im Rahmen der Berliner Vorschriften. Aber kein Frankfurter Kandidat schaffte die Aufnahme in die DPG ohne Nachausbildung in Berlin; Erich Fromm fiel zweimal mit Probevorträgen durch. S.H. Fuchs, 1928–1930 in Wien ausgebildet, wehrte sich gegen dieses Aufnahmeverfahren. Als Landauer 1929, bedrängt von Heinrich Meng, das Frankfurter Institut schuf, betonten beide, dass sie keine Ausbildung beabsichtigten. Das war nur die kurzfristige Wahrheit. Die Ambivalenz eines Instituts, das seine Ambitionen zunächst verdunkelte, ist für die Frankfurter Psychoanalyse ebenso kennzeichnend wie ihre Nähe zur akademischen Welt, insbesondere zur Soziologie (M. Horkheimer, N. Elias). – Die vorliegende Arbeit verwertet erstmals zahlreiche Stücke aus der Korrespondenz zwischen Landauer und Max Eitingon.
The purpose of this final academic paper is to describe the love story which tells sadness in William Blake’s >Love's Secret<. The writer adopts Erich Fromm’s theory of unrequited love from >The Art of Loving<. This final academic paper concerns intrinsic and extrinsic side of the poem. In the intrinsic side, the writer discusses about the existing diction and figurative language such as denotation and connotation and imagery to understand the true meaning of the poem. The extrinsic side, the writer discusses about unrequited love. The writer used library research, note-taking and internet browsing for collecting the data. The result is that love does not only bring happiness but also deep sadness for the speaker of the poem as unrequited love which is reflected in >Love's Secret<. So, it succeeds in bringing the readers to feel what the speaker feels.
War is a uniquely human scourge with complex biological, psychological, social, and political determinants. In this paper, repetition-compulsions both in making war and in the diagnosis and treatment of war trauma are documented. The diagnosis and treatment of war trauma are reviewed from the Napoleonic wars until the present, and parallel tracks in the development of military history, neurology, and psychoanalysis are traced. A personal history of the author and a clinical case history are included to demonstrate the effect of war on both family members and soldiers. Prevention of war through political negotiation is emphasized.
Положення про те, що порушення психічного здоров’я є наслідком процесу ускладненої соціалізації індивіда, досі є головною ідеєю психоаналізу. Дія феноменау компенсації осмислюється засновником психоаналізу З. Фрейдом у несвідомих механізмах психіки, у сновидіннях, у людських жартах і дотепах та ін. У цілому, весь простір культури просякнутий механізмами компенсації для адаптації й соціаліза ції особистості, що стає можливим за умов виявлення потенцій її креативності.Згідно з теорією К.-Г. Юнга, тяжкий психічний стан, «позасвідоме» та «компенсація» мають точку перетину, ніби приходять до спільного порога, за яким вступають у «хід» творчі здібності, складаючи джерело розвитку креативності. Механізми процесу компенсації фрагментарно збігаються з феноменом «Самості». Разом з тим, бінарні архетипи в структурі колективного несвідомого людської психіки також знаходяться у компенсаторній взаємодії. Поняття >компенсація – надкомпенсація< широко вживаються й А. Адлером у різних аспектах і позначають засіб подолання неповноцінності, засіб здобуття коректної моральної свободи. На основі комплексу неповноцінності розвивається компенсаторний комплекс переваги. Обидва комплекси мають щось спільне: будучи надмірно розвинені або врівноважуючи один одного, вони сприяють виключенню з корисного життя і невротизації. Але будучи наповнені соціальним змістом і проявляючись адекватно ситуації, вони виступають як сигнальні орієнтири. Згідно з концепцією К. Хорні, саме міжособистісну комунікацію можна визначити як механізм компенсації неврозів. В той же час Е. Фромм наповнює феномен компенсації соціальним змістом. Він описав три важливих компенсаторних синдроми: прагнення до панування, прагнення до підпорядкування, втеча в працю. Надбання психоаналізу не втратило своєї значущості і сьогодні, бо всі ці компенсаторні механізми діють і в сучасному суспільстві.
A favela no Rio de Janeiro constitui um fenômeno que, no espaço das últimas décadas, evoluiu, criando vários mecanismos sociais ausentes em outras partes da cidade. O artigo foca a análise das relações de poder na favela a partir dos trabalhos de Hannah Arendt e Erich Fromm, apontando na direção de soluções sistêmicas típicas de sistemas >totalistas<, o que traz consigo várias consequências para a formação humana do indivíduo.
Just as there are many roads to Rome, the trial period may be considered one of many opening moves in psychotherapy or psychoanalysis. The responsive – and responsible – therapist must be many things to many patients, some of whom know nothing about the psychotherapeutic/analytic process. Freud advocated the trial period to help him take a >sounding< when he knew little about the patient and when the patient knew little about psychoanalysis. R.I.P.? This brief communication laments the apparent demise of this promising procedure and makes an effort at resurrection by describing the hitherto unmapped latent structure of the trial period. Even if there are fewer patients in psychoanalysis today, there may be a number of reasons to recommend a trial period, no matter what we name this period of optimistic uncertainty at the beginning of every treatment. Even if >consultation< is the term de jour, the psychoanalytic psychotherapist cannot escape certain role responsibilities at the beginning of every treatment, which has been made clear in the ethical principles of the American Psychoanalytic Association. What we will learn about the trial period should serve our understanding of what must also occur in the beginning of every psychotherapy or psychoanalysis. Conceptually, I propose that a trial analysis (1) will serve as a discriminative stimulus, signaling, to the patient, the unique nature of the analytic conversation; (2) will permit an in vivo assessment of the patient's suitability for psychoanalysis, and, more importantly, the fit between analyst and patient; (3) will provide anticipatory socialization for the unfamiliar and difficult roles of patient and therapist within the analytic process; (4) will offer true informed consent about the task facing therapist and patient; and (5) will facilitate an opportunity for therapeutic assessment, all of which will help the naive patient acquire the skills and lived experience to become an analytic patient. The trial period is the perfect host for all that must happen – and what we can do– to help naive patients become analytic patients.
Gesetz und Evangelium. Antijudaistische Vorurteile und Projektionen in der (evangelischen) Theologie
(2014)
The philosophical anthropology of Erich Fromm rests on his analysis of the existential dichotomy, which breaks man’s humanity. When man disobeys God in paradise, he begins to become human. He begins to be free. For Fromm, disobedience is a prerequisite towards freedom. However, there is in him a yearning to go back to paradise to enjoy the >roots of his own nature.< He wants to be secured and taken care by a loving God. This allegory was taken and interpreted by Fromm that man is separated from his own nature. In paradise, he is an animal. He does not possess any reason or freedom as a human being. Physiologically, he does what other creatures do. However, saying >no< to God’s commandment allowed him to become human. He has reason and freedom. He is forced to take the responsibility to build his own humanity. Now, he is torn between two existential nature i.e., his animal nature and human nature. There is no way for him to return to his paradisiacal roots. He has to move on and build his true human nature. For Fromm, this can be done through reason, faith, and love.
How did psychoanalysis find its way from >traumatic progression< or >precocious maturity,< as described by Ferenczi at the beginning of the 1930s with its background in the >wise baby< phenomenon, to research on resilience? The paper focuses on psychoanalytic approaches to resilience. What was the contribution of ego psychology, object relations and attachment theories, self-psychology, and group experiences to understanding resilience? Results concerning resilience are based on longitudinal studies of early hospitalized or traumatized but >resilient children,< child survivors of genocides, wars, and communal violence, populations of children and adult refugees. The paper shows the different approaches to resilience, from factoral components to views of structures and processes, including the new ideas that place resilience and depletion as phenomena at the two ends of the same continuity of structural dimensions: psychobiological and object relational.
Atheïsme en religiositeit lijken elkaars absolute tegenpolen. Filosoof Wim Van Moer stelt deze intuïtieve, ook onder atheïsten wijdverspreide overtuiging ter discussie. Deze analyse onthult dat de religieuze ervaring niet verbonden hoeft te zijn met een geloof in een bovennatuurlijke entiteit of realiteit. Geïnspireerd door Leo Apostel en in de voetsporen van William James en Erich Fromm, betoogt de auteur dat deze tegenstrijdigheid, zelfs binnen een radicaal atheïstisch vertoog, niet automatisch geldig is. Van Moer staaft deze stelling met een meeslepende fenomenologische analyse van de religieuze ervaring, die uitmondt in een theoretisch model waarmee hij religieuze ervaringen binnen een atheïstische context kan onderzoeken. [Taken from Publisher’s Website: http://nl.aup.nl/books/9789089644626-atheistische-religiositeit.html]
The ways of transferring knowledge and values have drastically changed, and the “others directed” people, the market and/or receptive orientation people, as Fromm would call them, turn to others in order to confirm their self-value. Others, however, are often only intermediaries in promoting what the mass media have defined as “currently desirable” attitude, behaviour or set of qualities. A radical example is a problem of being torn apart between the illusion that life should be easy and the (repressed) feeling that it is not, as quoted by Riesman, which results in unfounded belief in the possibilities of effortless life and rapid success, among other things. The mutual influences of the media and the social character of the public and individuals are emphasized in the paper.
The author traces the profile of psychoanalyst Igor Caruso, one of the founders of the International Federation of Psychoanalytic Societies, an alternative institution to the dogmatic International Psychoanalytic Association. She comments on his first visit to Brazil in 1956, and his longer stay in 1968/69 in Belo Horizonte, where he helped to consolidate the then newborn Círculo Psicanalítico de Minas Gerais, as well as taking part in the foundation of Círculo Brasileiro de Psicanálise. Caruso was also important in the creation of other circles of psychoanalysis in Latin America. The article presents his psychoanalytic ideas, especially about personalization and the permanent dialectic influence of socialization, still emphasizing his human qualities.
Цель статьи: изучить один из аспектов процесса глобализации – распространение английского языка – в контексте теории лингвистической относительности, указывающей на взаимосвязь языка с ментальностью носителей данного языка. При анализе автор рассматривает отнесенность английского языка к >иметь<-языкам, а русского – к >быть<-языкам и конкретные формы выражения этого в языке в качестве глубинных культурных установок, связывая данные факты воедино, с одной стороны, с концепцией Фромма о направленности человека на обладание или бытие, с другой стороны – с процессом глобализации и установками, стоящими за формами проявления этого процесса и обуславливающими результаты (прежде всего, цивилизационные кризисы), которые мы наблюдаем в настоящий момент. В заключении автор предлагает в качестве первого антикризисного шага акти визировать филологическую составляющую образовательного процесса, в том числе – на уровне высшей школы.
Escapes from Freedom: Political Extremism, Conspiracy Theories, and the Sociology of Emotions
(2014)
El presente artículo tiene como objetivo revisar, desde una perspectiva crítica, los orígenes sociales, históricos y teóricos que posibilitaron la emergencia de la Psicología Social Analítica desarrollada por el psicólogo Erich Fromm en la década de 1930 del pasado siglo. En este sentido, se incorporan las variables contextuales que configuraron un marco para el desarrollo de una psicología social que intentó aunar el pensamiento marxista con la teoría psicoanalítica. El análisis de sus primeras obras >Obreros y empleados en vísperas del Tercer Reich< (1929) y >El dogma de Cristo< (1930) resultan de importancia central para comprender su propuesta teórica dentro de la Escuela de Frankfurt en medio del ascenso del nazismo en Alemania.
The Ethnographic Spiral: Reflections on the Intersection of Life History and Ideal-Typical Analysis
(2014)
Celem artykułu jest analiza problemów związanych z działalnością na rzecz ochrony środowiska w świetle metod ochrony przyrody związanych z afektywnym podejściem do zagadnień natury. Artykuł omawia zjawisko >Fuck For Forest<, związane z działalnością międzynarodowej organizacji ekologicznej, pozyskującej środki na wspieranie przedsięwzięć pro-ekologicznych za pomocą pornografii. Działalność grupy ujawnia złożoność przedsięwzięć ekologicznych, obnażając problemy związane z wolontariatem, różnicami kulturowymi, kulturową tożsamością oraz kulturowo uwarunkowanym pojęciem natury. Wskazuje na liczne dylematy związane z biofilią, jakie ujawniają się we współczesnych formach ochrony środowiska.
本考에서는 근대 서구사회에서 競爭論이 등장하게 된 배경과 경쟁론의 구체적 내용을 살펴보고, 경쟁론에 대한 근래의 여러 비판들을 두루 살펴본 다음, 그들의 反競爭論이 함축하는 바를 정리해 보았다. 오늘날 우리가 경쟁론을 지양시키고자 한다면, >사회복지의 당위성<과 >경제적 효율성<의 문제는 물론 >올바른 세계관의 정립< 문제가 긴요한 것이요, 뿐만 아니라 >올바른 가치관의 정립< 문제도 매우 중요한 관건이 되는 것이다.
본고에서 살핀 여러 碩學들의 反競爭論이 중요한 의의를 지니는 것이라면, 같은 맥락에서 우리는 전통 유교의 名分論에 대해서도 새롭게 인식할 필요가 있다. 우리 한국의 근대화 과정은 전통적 名分論을 타파하고 서구의 競爭論을 도입하는 과정이기도 했다. 그런데 한 때는 진보의 원동력으로 기능했던 경쟁론이 이제는 숱한 폐단을 낳고 있다면, 우리는 전통적 사회운영론의 의의를 되돌아보아야 마땅한 것이다.
롤즈에 따르면, 거의 정의로운 사회에서의 시민은 예외적인 부정의를 시정하기 위한 항의행동으로서 법을 위반할 수 있다. 그러한 행동은 비폭력적이고 공개적이어야 하고, 불복종자는 법위반의 대가로서 처벌을 감수해야 한다. 반면 당국은 불복종자와 통상적인 범법자를 구별하고 불복종자를 우호적으로 취급해야 한다. 그러나 롤즈의 모형은 현실에서 일반적으로 작동하지 않는다. 핵심적인 문제는 >거의 정의로운 상태<가 개념적으로 명료하지 않으며 내용적으로 충분하지 못하다는 점이다. 또 동일한 정치질서도 계급, 인종, 성, 종교, 세계관에 따라 상이하게 평가될 수밖에 없다. 한편 >거의 정의로운 상태<를 서구 민주주의와 동일시한다면 특정한 정치질서를 특권화하는 문제점도 안고 있다. 나아가 거의 정의로운 상태가 평등한 자유의 원칙이나 공정한 기회의 원칙을 통해서 도달 가능한 체제보다 우월한 정치적 상태라고 상정한다면, 불복종의 이유를 평등한 자유의 원칙과 공정한 기회의 원칙에 대한 심각한 위배에 국한시키는 롤즈의 방침은 불충분하다. 롤즈는 경제적 불평등을 시민불복종의 직접적인 사유로 취급하지 않고 정치적 과정에 맡길 문제로 상정한다. 그러나 경제적 불평등, 빈곤의 심화는 고착된 사회경제적・정치적 권력의 필연적인 결과이므로 불복종의 이유로서 고려되어야 한다. 이 경우 불복종과 저항은 특정한 법과 정책이 아니라 지배 체제에 대한 저항의 성격을 띠게 된다. 신자유주의 체제의 어떤 개별적인 악법이나 나쁜 정책이 문제되는 것이 아니라 체제 전체의 근본적 부정의가 문제되기 때문이다. 롤즈가 <공정으로서 정의: 재진술> 및 <정의론> 수정판에서 제안한 재산소유 민주주의는 복지국가형태보다는 정의로운 정치체제이므로 >거의 정의로운 상태<에 근접한다. 따라서 재산소유 민주주의 체제는 롤즈의 불복종이론이 가동되기 적합한 상태라고 추정할 수 있다. 그밖에 롤즈가 시민불복종의 요건으로 제시한 비폭력성, 법에 대한 충실성으로서 양심성은 본질적으로 저항의 목표 달성이라는 정치적 시각에서 재검토해야 한다. 이러한 목표 달성과 무관한 양심적 비폭력주의는 정치적으로 바람직하지도 않으며 때로는 심각한 파국을 초래할 수 있다. 결국 사회의 근본적 개혁에 대한 열망만이 불복종을 추동하고 정당화한다. 또한 현실세계에서 정치적 권력, 경제적 권력, 문화적 권력은 서로 강고하게 결합되어 하나의 지배체제를 이루고 있으므로 불복종을 특정한 부분에 한정할 수도 없다. 권력이 있는 곳이라면 불복종은 언제나 필요하다. 불복종은 대의제의 결함을 보완하는 것이 아니라 민주주의의 본질적인 부분이자 국민의 주권을 증명하는 행동이다.
Preface
(2014)
고독사 예방 및 극복을 위한 기독교 사회윤리적 기초 [Christian Social Ethics for Preventing and Overcoming Solitary Death]
(2014)
현대사회는 경제 환경의 급격한 변화 및 가족의 축소, 도시환경의 변화, 가치관의 혼란 등으로 인해 사람들의 >유대<(혹은 친밀감)가 점점 약화되어가고 있다. 그래서 최근 사회 및 학계의 각 영역에서 >유대<라는 개념이 주목받고 있다. 이처럼 우리사회에서 >유대<라는 개념이 크게 관심을 모으고 있는 것은 바꾸어 말하면 인간관계의 왜곡 현상이 이제는 간과할 수 없을 만큼 많은 사람들에게 일어나고 있는 문제라는 것을 반증하고 있는 것이라 할 수 있다. 최근 이러한 문제에 대한 조사가 일부 진행되기는 했으나 축적된 연구가 매우 빈약하고, 그 정책적 대응 또한 매우 미비하다. 얼마 전부터 문제의 심각성을 인지한 이들에 의해 다양한 연구적 접근이 시도되고 있지만 이 영역의 접근은 단순히 실태보고와 현상적 대응에 대한 논의만 이루어질 뿐 이를 뒷받침할 수 있는 이론적 고찰이 뒤따르지 못하고 있다. 그 이유는 인간관계의 상실 및 왜곡에 따른 결과적 현상이 사회적 고립에 의한 >고독사<와 같은 충격적인 형태로 나타나다보니 이론적 고찰보다는 대응책 마련이 더 시급한 선결과제가 되어버렸기 때문일 것이다. 그러나 눈앞의 문제에 급급한 나머지 그 심원의 근본적 해결을 위한 요인을 밝히는 작업이 선행되지 않는다면 이 문제는 계속 우리사회에 잠복해 있다가 언제든지 다시 그 현상을 표출시킬 것임은 자명하다. 이는 우리사회가 이미 경험한 바다. 현재 사회적으로 고독사 현상의 양적⋅질적 변화에 맞는 다양한 대책이 강구되고 있음에도 불구하고 고독사와 관련하여 여전히 과거의 현상과 다를 바 없는 언론의 보도가 지금도 여전히 지속되고 있기 때문이다. 그러므로 본 논문은 >고독사< 문제의 예방 및 극복은 다양한 차원의 제도적 대책마련에 앞서 기본적(이론적) 접근을 통해 근본적 해결을 위한 요인을 밝히고, 그에 따라 접근해야만 가능하다고 주장한다. 이 주장을 뒷받침하기 위해 우선 >기본<으로서의 인간관계인 >유대<와>사랑<의 관계를 에드문트 후설과 에리히 프롬의 견해에 기대어 윤리적 관점에서 해석해 보고, 이를 토대로 마틴 루터와 존 웨슬리의 논설을 따라 >기독교적 공공성과 사회적 책임<인 >이웃사랑<이 고독사 예방 및 극복을 위한 윤리 사상적 토대임을 제안하였다.
Celem artykułu jest pokazanie wpływu procesów kulturowych na stan zdrowia społeczeństwa. Tekst zawiera przegląd definicji zdrowia, ujawniając ich rosnącą złożoność, wynikającą z włączania do nich coraz większej liczby czynników pozacielesnych. Na podstawie analiz przeprowadzonych przez Ericha Fromma i Theodore’a Bramelda przedstawiona jest diagnoza stanu zdrowia współczesnego rozwiniętego społeczeństwa zachodniego. Podsumowaniem całości jest kilka postulatów pod adresem edukacji. Edukacja, aby mogła wspierać harmonijne funkcjonowanie społeczeństwa, musi mieć wpływ na kształtowanie standardów zdrowotnych obowiązujących w tymże społeczeństwie.
Предмет исследования — рассмотрение нечеловеческого в человеке. Данная проблема имеет несколько аспектов. Во-первых, она связана с религиозной тематикой. В сакральной литературе человек рассматривается как греховное создание, впавшее в первородный грех. Во-вторых, тема нечеловеческого сопряжена с моральным аспектом. Здесь она трактуется как человеческая подверженность злу. В-третьих, нечеловеческое в человеке связано с постепенным разочарованием в нём как в божьей твари, получившим освещение в средневековой литературе. Это вызвало особый феномен, который Н.А. Бердяев назвал «умалением человека». Новый этап в раскрытии этой темы можно связать с психоаналитическими традициями. Психоанализ раскрывает феноменологию бессознательного, природу инстинктов, ведущих к агрессии и разрушительству. Фромм пишет специальную книгу «Анатомия человеческой деструктивности». Наконец, нечеловеческое становится сюжетом современной трансгуманистической философии. Речь идет о том, чтобы внедрить в человека нечто, позволяющее исправить человеческую природу, создать нового человека. Автор опирается на столь значимую методологию, как герменевтический и психоаналитический анализтекстов, позволяющий в данном случае раскрыть разные аспекты нечеловеческого. Новизна статьи в постановке самой темы, которая в отечественной литературе не была предметом самостоятельного анализа. Автор делает попытку проследить историко-философскую традицию, которая связана с этой проблемой. Накоплены многочисленные интуиции о том, какое место занимает в потомке Адама то, что не соответствует его изначальной природе. Однако данная тема не рассматривалась в целостном историко-философском ракурсе. Прослеживая осмысление этой проблемы от древности до на ших дней, мы видим, что она актуализирует самые неожиданные ходы исследовательской мысли. Особенно злободневно звучат в этой теме сюжеты духовности человека как особого рода сущего. Человеческое не может раскрыть себя, если оно не связано с нечеловеческим.